Project on the topic of physics in architecture. Show the importance of the laws of physics in architecture. Bending deformation is reduced by various types of supports and struts

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Plan

Architecture as the art of designing and building objects that shape the human environment. Stone architecture of the ancient world and its achievements. Seven wonders of the world. Buildings, structures and ensembles that make up the world cultural heritage: the need for careful treatment of architectural monuments. Requirements for structural elements of buildings and structures and their consideration in architectural practice and construction. Problems of modern urban planning. What will the cities of the future be like: some architectural ideas.

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Architecture (Latin architectura, from Greek architekton - builder) is the art of designing and building objects that design the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture - buildings, ensembles, as well as structures organizing open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). Architecture itself belongs to that area of ​​human activity where the union of science, technology and art is especially strong. In architecture, functional, technical and artistic principles (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interconnected.

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Australia. Harbor in Sydney. The view of the opera house is one of the symbols of the city.

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The Sydney Opera House is one of the symbols of the city. Its architectural dominant. In 1954, city authorities announced a competition for the best project. The Danish architect Jorn Utson won, but his project turned out to be too expensive, Utson was forced to abandon it. However, in 1973 (almost twenty years later) the building was finally completed. Now the Sydney Opera House is a huge complex, including six auditoriums and two restaurants.

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landscape architecture

Landscape architecture is the art of creating a harmonious combination of natural landscapes with human-developed territories, settlements, architectural complexes and structures. The goals of landscape architecture include the protection of natural landscapes and the creation of new ones, the systematic development of a system of natural and artificial landscapes.

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Luxembourg. Hanging Gardens.

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The functions of an architectural structure determine its plan and spatial structure. Exhibition center of the Philips concern.

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The figurative and aesthetic principle in architecture is connected with its social function and is manifested in the formation of the volumetric-spatial and constructive system of the structure. La Défense, a business and shopping district in the northwestern part of Paris.

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The expressive means of architecture are composition, rhythm, architectonics, scale, plasticity, synthesis of arts, etc. The choice of architectural composition is based on data from many sciences: it is necessary to take into account not only the purpose of the structure and its design features, the organic nature of the building or structure in the surrounding buildings, but also climate of the area, features of natural conditions, etc. Among all these sciences, physics occupies an important place, which has especially increased in modern architecture and construction.

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The architecture of the ancient world is called monumental stone architecture, because with the help of simple tools it was necessary to trim and polish, and then fit huge stone blocks to each other with amazing precision. Antique natural stone masonry (Sardinia).

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The Seven Wonders of the World - this was the name in ancient times for seven works of architecture and sculpture, surpassing all others in their colossal size and luxury, namely: 1) the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs, 2) the hanging gardens of the Babylonian queen Semiramis, 3) the Ephesian temple of Artemis, 4) the statue of Olympian Zeus, 5) the tombstone of King Mausolus, in Halicarnassus, 6) the Colossus of Rhodes, 7) a lighthouse tower erected in Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus (at the end of the 3rd century BC) and having about 180 m in height.

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Of the seven wonders of the world, the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs have survived to us. At Giza there are three largest pyramids, belonging to the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre and Menkara, several smaller ones, a great sphinx, between whose paws a small temple is placed, and another granite temple to the southeast of the first. In one of the temple halls, in a well, Mariette found the statues of Khafre, broken, except for one. In addition, there are many tombs of individuals and inscriptions. The pyramids were described by Davinson (1763), Niebuhr (1761), the French expedition (1799), Hamilton (1801) and many others. etc.

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Egypt. Great Pyramids at Giza.

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Near the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre (Khafre) in El Giza there is the “Great Sphinx” carved from the rock - a fantastic creature with the body of a lion and the portrait head of Pharaoh Khafre. The height of the giant figure is 20 m, length 73 m. The Arabs call him Abu el-Khol - “father of silence”. Between the paws of the sphinx stands a stele of Pharaoh Thutmose IV. According to legend, the prince once dozed off here and saw in a dream how he would be crowned with the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt if he cleared the sand from the sphinx. Thutmose did just that, and his dream came true - Thutmose became a pharaoh. The sphinx's nose was shot off by Mamluk soldiers in the Middle Ages.

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Sphinx and Pyramid of Cheops. The Pyramid of Cheops in Giza is the largest (height 146.6 m) in Egypt. Dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e.

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Mysteries of the pyramids

The pyramids and temples, striking in their grandeur and grandeur, contain many unsolved mysteries. Here is one of them. The pyramids are made of huge slabs. How could the ancients, with the help of their imperfect tools, raise these blocks to such a height? Not a single modern crane can cope with the task of lifting solid slabs with a volume of up to 400 cubic meters. meters!

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Maybe this was the case?

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In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (entered into force in 1975). The Convention was ratified (beginning in 1992) by 123 participating countries, including Russia. The World Heritage List includes 358 objects from 80 countries (at the beginning of 1992): individual architectural structures and ensembles, cities, archaeological reserves, national parks. States on whose territory World Heritage sites are located undertake obligations to preserve them.

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The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are included in the World Heritage List.

The Moscow Kremlin is the historical core of Moscow. Located on Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of the Moscow River, at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (at the beginning of the 19th century it was enclosed in a pipe). The modern brick walls and towers were erected in 1485-95. Towers in the 17th century. received the existing tiered and tented completions. The Moscow Kremlin is one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles in the world. Monuments of ancient Russian architecture: cathedrals - Assumption (1475-79), Annunciation (1484-1489) and Arkhangelsk (1505-08), Ivan the Great bell tower (1505-1508, built on in 1600), Faceted Chamber (1487-91), Teremnoy palace (1635-36) and others. The Senate building was built in 1776-87, the Grand Kremlin Palace in 1839-49, and the Armory Chamber in 1844-51. In 1959-61 the Palace of Congresses (now the state Kremlin Palace) was built. Among the 20 towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the most significant are Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, Troitskaya, and Borovitskaya. On the territory there are wonderful monuments of Russian foundry “Tsar Cannon” (16th century) and “Tsar Bell” (18th century).

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Moscow. Kremlin at night.

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Red Square is the central square of Moscow, adjacent to the Kremlin from the east. It was formed at the end of the 15th century, called Krasnaya (beautiful) from the 2nd half of the 17th century. Originally a trading area, from the 16th century. place of ceremonies. It is bounded on the west by the Kremlin wall with towers, separated by a moat in 1508-16. In 1534 the Execution Place was built. In 1535-38 within the borders of Kitai-Gorod. In 1555-60 the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected. After the fire of 1812, the ditch was filled in and the shopping arcades were rebuilt. In 1818, a monument to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky was unveiled. At the end of the 19th century. The Historical Museum and new Upper Trading Rows (GUM) were built. In 1924-30, the mausoleum of V.I. Lenin was built. In 1930-31 the square was paved with paving stones. In 1992-94, the Kazan Cathedral was recreated (circa 1636; dismantled in 1936). From Red Square, the distance is measured along all highways leading from Moscow.

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Red Square

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Unfortunately, in 1928-33. By order of the Soviet government, many architectural monuments were demolished on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, including the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor (1330), the ensemble of the Chudov Monastery with the cathedral (1503) and the Ascension Monastery with the Catherine Church (1808-17), the Small Nicholas Palace (since 1775) and others. In 1992 Russia has ratified the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, and obligations to preserve them will be strictly fulfilled.

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The World Heritage List includes not only the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square, but also other equally beautiful and majestic ensembles, nature reserves, and buildings of Russia: the Historical Center of St. Petersburg; Trinity Lavra of Sergius in the city of Sergiev Posad, founded in the 40s. 14th century by Sergius of Radonezh; Church of the Intercession on the Nerl in the Vladimir region, near Bogolyubov, at the confluence of the Nerl River and the Klyazma River, an architectural monument of the Vladimir-Suzdal school (1165); Novgorod Kremlin; Museum-Reserve of Wooden Architecture Kizhi, etc.

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Requirements for structural elements of buildings

Architectural structures must be built to last. Structural elements (wood, stone, steel, concrete, etc.) that bear the main loads of buildings and structures must reliably ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of buildings and structures.

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Among the historical monuments in some cities of Europe and Asia, the so-called. "falling" towers. There are such towers in Pisa, Bologna, Afghanistan and other places. In Bologna, two famous “leaning” towers made of simple brick rise nearby. The taller tower (height 97 m, the top is deviated 1.23 m from the vertical), which continues to tilt today, is the torredegli Asinelli, from the top of which the Euganean Mountains, located north of the Po River, are visible. Latorre Garisenda reaches half the height of its neighbor and is tilted even more (its height is 49 m, deviation from the vertical is 2.4 m). Why are the towers inclined? Perhaps the towers were built inclined from the very beginning according to the intricate idea of ​​​​a medieval architect, who calculated the slope of the towers so that over many years the fall of the “leaning” towers did not occur. It is possible that the towers were initially straight and then tilted due to one-sided subsidence of the soil, as happened with one of the bell towers in Arkhangelsk.

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On the cathedral square to the east of the cathedral rises the famous leaning tower (Campanile), cylindrical in shape, built in 1174-1350. architects Bonann from Pisa, Wilhelm from Innsbruck and others; the tower has 8 tiers, its height is 54.5 m, deviation from the vertical is 4.3 m; it is believed that the strange shape of the tower was originally a consequence of subsidence of the soil, and then it was artificially strengthened and left in this form.

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From the instructions to ancient architects: “You should not spare any labor or dependence on the construction of the sole and the frame.” This is understandable. The foundation is, in the full sense of the word, the basis of the building. Foundation calculations are based primarily on taking into account the force of pressure on the ground: for a given mass of the structure, the pressure decreases with increasing support area. Lack of proper attention to these dependencies can let builders down. For example, according to the original design, the Ostankino Tower was supposed to rest on 4 “legs”.

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Determinative formula for pressure

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How to improve balance stability?

A body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area. Equilibrium is lost if the line of gravity does not pass through the area of ​​support. How to improve balance stability? 1. The support area should be increased by placing the support points further apart. It is best if they are placed outside the projection of the body onto the plane of support. 2. The probability of a vertical line going beyond the boundaries of the support area is reduced if the center of gravity is located low above the support area, i.e. the principle of minimum potential energy is observed.

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The higher the architectural structure, the stricter the requirements for its stability. The authors of the Ostankino TV tower project are confident in the engineering calculations for the stability of the structure: the huge half-kilometer tower was built on the tumbler principle. Three quarters of the total weight of the tower falls on one ninth of its height, i.e. the main weight of the tower is concentrated below at the base. It would take colossal forces to make such a tower fall. She is not afraid of hurricane winds or earthquakes. The reason for the stability of the Alexandria Column in St. Petersburg, the Eiffel Tower in Paris and many other high-rise structures is the location of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground.

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The Ostankino Tower in Moscow is an outwardly light, elegant structure with a height of 533 m, successfully integrated into the surrounding landscape. Rising above the surrounding buildings, expressive and dynamic in composition, the tower plays the role of the main high-rise dominant and a kind of emblem of the city.

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Why is the Ostankino Tower stable?

At the base, the tower is supported by ten reinforced concrete “legs” in a ring foundation with an outer diameter of 74 m, laid in the ground to a depth of 4.65 m. Such a foundation, bearing 55,000 tons of concrete and steel, provides a six-fold safety margin against overturning. For bending, the safety margin was chosen to be double. And this is no coincidence, since the vibration amplitude of the upper part of the tower in strong winds reaches 3.5 m! In addition to the wind, the sun became the tower’s enemy: due to heating on one side, the tower body moved 2.25 m at the top, but 150 steel cables kept the tower barrel from bending. Such a grandiose and graceful structure acquired particular expressiveness and harmony because the tower was built without braces and additional fastenings.

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It was found that one of the most beautiful and majestic buildings in St. Petersburg - St. Isaac's Cathedral - settled by 1 mm annually. In the 70s. the building was closed for restoration: work was carried out to prevent the building from subsiding. To compact the foundation, a solution of a mixture of concrete and liquid glass was placed in it. In such mixtures, friction and viscosity of materials play a special role. Physics studies the laws of friction, and architecture uses them.

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An architectural monument is a scientific document, a historical source; the main goal of the restoration is to “read” this document and carefully strengthen the authentic ancient parts of the monument; To achieve the restoration goal, the least amount of work possible is carried out. Modern restoration techniques allow the use of all the latest achievements in construction technology and various physical and chemical methods to strengthen the monument. The materials used for restoration must be similar in appearance to the materials from which the monument was constructed; counterfeiting of the original material is not allowed. Dismantling of original parts of the monument is, as a rule, excluded.

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Restoration work is preceded by a thorough and comprehensive study of the architectural monument: full-scale (architectural and engineering) and historical and archival research. The causes of dilapidation, damage, and disturbance of the static balance of the monument are studied on location; A variety of technical means are used to study the condition of structures. Possible ways to eliminate damage and deformation of the monument are clarified and the specific features of the main building materials and solutions are examined. In the course of historical and archival research, all, even indirect, written sources, photographs, paintings, drawings in which the monument is reproduced, as well as other images of it (for example, on medals, seals) are studied.

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Learning from nature

Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong. Achieving high constructive efficiency in architectural and construction practice in recent years is achieved by physical modeling of natural forms.

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Man learns from nature

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For example, the stem of almost all representatives of the grass family is a straw, thickened at the nodes and hollow at the internodes. This stem structure combines great strength and lightness of construction. The principle of straw structure was used in the construction of the tallest building in our country - the Ostankino TV tower. Architects borrowed from nature the principle of “structure resistance in form.” The strength of a structure depends on its shape: a corrugated structure is stronger than a flat one. Using this principle, folded domes with a span of 100-200 m were built in the USA, and in France they covered a pavilion with a span of 218 m. The strength of arched structures is significantly increased due to membrane films that create pre-stress. This allows the construction of dome-shaped structures of enormous size without columns or even decorative supports.

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Lome (capital of Togo): use of corrugated construction

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Modern mosque in Karachi with a domed roof.

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Theory and practice of urban planning and development

Urban planning covers a complex set of socio-economic, construction and technical, architectural, artistic, sanitary and hygienic problems. Regular planning (rectangular, radial-ring, fan, etc.), taking into account local conditions, construction of architectural ensembles, landscape architecture, etc. serve to streamline the planning and development of cities. The first experiments in streamlining cities and settlements date back to the middle. 3rd - beginning 2nd millennium BC e. In Dr. Egypt and Mesopotamia used to divide the city into geometrically regular blocks. Medieval cities, surrounded by strong walls, had crooked and narrow streets around the castle, city cathedral or market square. Residential areas outside the city walls were surrounded by a new ring of walls, and sometimes ring streets were formed in their place, which, in combination with radial streets, determined the formation of the characteristic radial-ring (less often fan) structure of cities.

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The city of Palmanova (1593, near Udine - one of the outposts of the Venetian Republic) as an example of a regular layout.

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Houses of Parliament and Big Ben Tower (1837) in London.

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The rapid growth of cities from the mid-19th century, then the rapid development of motor transport, the emergence of colossal urban areas (urban agglomerations), and pollution of the urban environment prompted the search for new principles of urban planning (zoning of urban areas, regional planning, urban road systems, types of garden cities, satellite, modern residential areas and microdistricts). The main tasks of modern urban planning are the creation of cities and towns with an individual appearance, the solution of urban environmental problems, overcoming the monotony of standard development, the preservation and scientifically based reconstruction of old urban centers, the careful preservation and restoration of cultural monuments, their combination with modern buildings.

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Urban motorway junctions

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What should the cities of the future be like?

Perhaps the cities of the future will go underground. Today, numerous underground passages are being built, new metro lines and multi-tiered underground garages are being built. There are already over 50 underground shopping centers in Tokyo, and New Ginza Street is built underground. In France, an entire section of the new boulevard went under the Bois de Boulogne, and part of the underground city was opened under Place de l'Etoile. For the 850th anniversary of Moscow, Manezhnaya Square was reconstructed: a huge underground shopping complex with all its infrastructure was opened, making the square pedestrian. Underground cities will most likely play the role of “utility rooms.”

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Moscow. Manezhnaya Square, reconstructed for the 850th anniversary of the city.

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Some architectural ideas: P. Maimon proposed building a suspended city in Tokyo Bay on conical meshes of steel ropes, which is not afraid of tremors and sea tides. R. Dernach developed a project for the construction of cities floating on water. S. Friedman believes that the future belongs to bridge cities connecting Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Blue Cities Ideas. Dollinger developed a project for a high-rise residential building like... a Christmas tree about 100 m high with a support surface of 25 square meters. m with separate branches-apartments, and V. Frishman used a similar idea to develop a project for an 850-story tree house with a height of 3200 m. The foundation of such a tree-city should go into the ground to a depth of 150 m. This giant is designed to accommodate 500 thousand Human.

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Used information resources:

Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006, 10 CDs. Illustrated encyclopedic dictionary, 2 CDs. Encyclopedia "The World Around Us", CD. Children's Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006, 2 CD. Physics, grades 7 – 11. Library of visual aids, CD, etc.

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Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible changes in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads, in a narrow sense - only resistance to destruction. The strength of solids is ultimately determined by the interaction forces between the atoms and ions that make up the body. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc.), on operating conditions (temperature, loading rate, duration and number of loading cycles, environmental influences, etc.). Depending on all these factors, various strength measures are adopted in technology: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials.

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Equilibrium stability

Stability of equilibrium is the ability of a mechanical system, under the influence of forces in equilibrium, to almost not deviate under any minor random influences (light shocks, gusts of wind, etc.) and after a slight deviation to return to the equilibrium position.

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Structural rigidity

Stiffness is the ability of a body or structure to resist the formation of deformation; physical and geometric characteristics of the cross section of a structural element. The concept of stiffness is widely used in solving problems of strength of materials.

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Kiparenko Vladislav

In such an important science as architecture, various laws of physics are used. The most important of them are the law of universal gravitation and Hooke's law. Both laws are closely related to force, one of the fundamental physical quantities. Any form of matter is inevitably subject to the action of physical processes.

I turned to various sources of information about existing large-scale structures in Russia. I was interested in four architectural objects: the Alexander Column in St. Petersburg, the Ostankino TV Tower in Moscow, the memorial complex with the main building “The Motherland Calls” in Volgograd and the Bronze Horseman monument in St. Petersburg.

Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong.

I decided to find out how these large-scale objects are kept on the ground and do not fall. How the laws of physics help them to be in stable equilibrium states.

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Municipal state educational institution

Gymnasium No. 259

School competition of scientific research works “I am a researcher”.

Physics educational project

Physics in architecture

Subject: Physics.

I've done the work:

Kiparenko Vladislav, 7A MKOU gymnasium No. 259, Usatogo st. 8, apt. 19

Project Manager:

Kulichkova Larisa Valentinovna

Physics teacher, MKOU gymnasium No. 259 (Postnikova str. 4, Fokino)

ZATO Fokino

2017

1. Introduction. The main question of the project.

2.Relevance of the project.

3.Tasks and purpose of the work.

4. Theoretical material.

5. Project implementation.

6. Conclusion.

7. Resources used.

Introduction. The main question of the project.

In such an important science as architecture, various laws of physics are used. The most important of them are the law of universal gravitation and Hooke's law. Both laws are closely related to force, one of the fundamental physical quantities. Any form of matter is inevitably subject to the action of physical processes. I decided to explore the application of the above laws of physics in architecture.

Relevance of the project.

I chose this topic because I became interested in how architectural structures were built, what construction technologies were used and how physics is related to architecture.

An architectural monument is a scientific document, a historical source.

The relevance of my research work lies in the fact that it is a practical test of the relationship between physics and architecture, which uses the knowledge acquired at school.

Tasks:

1. Find out from various sources what elastic force and gravity are. Determine the degree of influence of these forces on the state of the architectural structure.

2. Find out in what cases problems of stability and strength manifest themselves in specific architectural structures

Goal of the work.

Prove the close connection between architecture and physical laws.

Explore the dependence of gravity and elasticity in architecture.

Hypothesis: I suppose that:

1.The operation of the laws of physics in architecture can change depending on various external factors.

2.Depending on weather conditions, the influence of forces affects differently.

Theoretical part.

Architecture refers not only to a system of buildings and structures that organize the spatial environment of a person, but most importantly, the art of creating buildings and structures according to the laws of beauty.

The word “architecture” comes from the Greek “arkitekton”, which means “skilled builder”. Architecture itself belongs to that area of ​​man where the union of science, technology and art is especially strong.

Back in the 1st century. BC. The ancient Roman architect Vitruvius formulated three basic principles of architecture: practicality, strength and beauty. A building is practical if it is well planned and easy to use. It is strong if it is built carefully and reliably. Finally, it is beautiful if it pleases the eye with its materials, proportions or decoration details.

In architecture, as in no other art, the beauty and usefulness of the functional purpose of buildings are closely intertwined, constantly interacting with each other. An indivisible whole in architecture is created by means of aesthetic expressiveness, the main of which is tectonics - a combination of the design of an architectural form and the work of the material. When implementing his plan, the architect must know many of the physical properties of building materials: density and elasticity, strength and thermal conductivity, sound insulation and waterproofing parameters, functional characteristics of light and color.

Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong. Achieving high constructive efficiency in architectural and construction practice in recent years is achieved by physical modeling of natural forms.

Strength - the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible changes in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads, in a narrow sense - only resistance to destruction. The strength of solids is ultimately determined by the interaction forces between the atoms and ions that make up the body. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc.), on operating conditions (temperature, loading rate, duration and number of loading cycles, environmental influences, etc.). Depending on all these factors, various strength measures are adopted in technology: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials.

Equilibrium stability - the ability of a mechanical system, under the influence of forces in equilibrium, to almost not deviate under any minor random influences (light shocks, gusts of wind, etc.) and after a slight deviation to return to the equilibrium position.

Rigidity - the ability of a body or structure to resist deformation; physical and geometric characteristics of the cross section of a structural element. The concept of stiffness is widely used in solving problems of strength of materials.

How to improve balance stability? A body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area. Equilibrium is lost if the line of gravity does not pass through the area of ​​support. How to improve balance stability?

1. The support area should be increased by placing the support points further apart. It is best if they are placed outside the projection of the body onto the plane of support.

2. The probability of a vertical line going beyond the boundaries of the support area is reduced if the center of gravity is located low above the support area, i.e. the principle of minimum potential energy is observed.

Among all sciences, physics occupies an important place, which has especially increased in modern architecture and construction.

The choice of architectural composition is based on data from many sciences: it is necessary to take into account the purpose of the structure, its design, the climate of the area, and the characteristics of natural conditions. Requirements for structural elements of buildings:

Architectural structures must be built to last.

Structural elements (wood, stone, steel, concrete, etc.) that bear the main loads of buildings and structures must reliably ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of buildings and structures.

The higher the architectural structure, the stricter the requirements for its stability.

Since 1829, work began on the preparation and construction of the foundation and pedestal of the Alexander Column on Palace Square in St. Petersburg. The foundation of the monument was built from granite stone blocks half a meter thick. It was extended to the horizon of the square using planked masonry. In its center was placed a bronze box with coins minted in honor of the victory of 1812.

The work was completed in October 1830.

Construction of the pedestal

After laying the foundation, a huge four-hundred-ton monolith, brought from the Pyuterlak quarry, was erected on it, which serves as the base of the pedestal.

The engineering problem of installing such a large monolith was solved by O. Montferrand as follows:

Installation of a monolith on the foundation. The monolith was rolled on rollers through an inclined plane onto a platform built close to the foundation. The stone was dumped on a pile of sand that had been previously poured next to the platform. Supports were brought up, then workers raked out the sand and placed rollers. The supports were cut, and the block was lowered onto the rollers. The stone was rolled onto the foundation. Ropes thrown over blocks were pulled with nine capstans and raised the stone to a height of about one meter.

Rising of the Alexander Column

The column was rolled along an inclined plane onto a special platform located at the foot of the scaffolding and wrapped in many rings of ropes to which blocks were attached.

A large number of ropes encircling the stone went around the upper and lower blocks and the free ends were wound on capstans placed in the square.

The block of stone rose obliquely, slowly crawled, then lifted off the ground and was brought to a position above the pedestal. On command, the ropes were released, the column smoothly lowered and fell into place.

Sculpture “The Motherland Calls”made of prestressed concrete - 5500 tons of concrete and 2400 tons of metal structures (excluding the base on which it stands).

The statue stands on a 2 meter high slab that rests on the main foundation.

The sculpture is hollow. Inside, the entire statue consists of separate cells-chambers. The thickness of the reinforced concrete walls of the sculpture is 25-30 centimeters. The rigidity of the frame is maintained by 99 metal cables that are constantly under tension.

The sword, 33 meters long and weighing 14 tons, was originally made of stainless steel covered with titanium sheets. The huge mass and high windage of the sword, due to its colossal size, caused the sword to sway strongly when exposed to wind loads, which led to excessive mechanical stress in thethe place where the hand holding the sword is attached to the body of the sculpture. Deformations in the sword's structure also caused the titanium plating sheets to move, creating an unpleasant sound of rattling metal.Therefore, in 1972, the blade was replaced with another one - consisting entirely of steel - and holes were provided in the upper part of the sword, which made it possible to reduce its windage.

Ostankino Tower

Externally, a light, elegant structure with a height of 540 m, successfully integrated into the surrounding landscape. Rising above the surrounding buildings, expressive and dynamic in composition, the tower plays the role of the main high-rise dominant and a kind of emblem of the city.

The authors of the Ostankino TV tower project are confident in the engineering calculations for the stability of the structure: the huge half-kilometer tower was built on the tumbler principle. Three quarters of the total weight of the tower falls on one ninth of its height, i.e. the main weight of the tower is concentrated below at the base. It would take colossal forces to make such a tower fall. She is not afraid of hurricane winds or earthquakes.

According to the initial design, the tower had 4 supports, later - on the advice of the world famous German civil engineer Fritz Leonhardt, the author of the world's first concrete television tower in Stuttgart - their number was increased to ten. The height of the tower was increased to 540 m, and the number of television and radio programs was increased.

The reason for the stability of the Alexandria Column in St. Petersburg and many other high-rise structures islocation of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground.

A body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area. Equilibrium is lost if the line of gravity does not pass through the area of ​​support.

Project implementation.

I turned to various sources of information about existing large-scale structures in Russia. I was interested in four architectural objects: the Alexander Column in St. Petersburg, the Ostankino TV Tower in Moscow, the memorial complex with the main building “The Motherland Calls” in Volgograd and the Bronze Horseman monument in St. Petersburg.

Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong.

I decided to find out how these large-scale objects are kept on the ground and do not fall. How the laws of physics help them to be in stable equilibrium states.

Alexander Column.

Architect-Auguste Montferrand. Erected in 1834

The total height of the structure is 47.5 m.

The height of the column trunk (monolithic part) is 25.6 m

Pedestal height 2.85 m

The height of the angel figure is 4.26 m,

Cross height 6.4 m

Bottom column diameter 3.5 m (12 ft), top diameter 3.15 m

The size of the pedestal is 6.3×6.3 m.

The total weight of the structure is 704 tons.

The weight of the stone column trunk is about 600 tons.

The total weight of the column top is about 37 tons.

Conclusion:

I found out that the column was installed manually using simple mechanisms: blocks, inclined planes.

The monument has amazing clarity of proportions, laconism of form, and beauty of silhouette.

It is the tallest monument in the world, made of solid granite, and the third tallest of all monumental columns.

The column stands on a granite base without any additional supports, only under the influence of its own gravity equal to 7040000N=7.04MN

The Column Trunk is the tallest and heaviest monolith ever erected vertically as a column or obelisk, and one of the greatest (fifth in history and second - after the Thunder Stone - in modern times) monoliths moved by man.

And I also found out thatThe reason for the stability of the column is the location of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground.

architectural structure“The Motherland is calling!” Volgograd 1967

Architects: E.V. Vuetich, N.V. Nikitin

Sculpture “The Motherland is Calling!” entered into the Guinness Book of Records as the largest sculpture-statue in the world at that time.

Its height is 52 meters,

arm length - 20 m and sword length - 33 meters.

The total height of the sculpture is 85 meters.

The weight of the sculpture is 8 thousand tons, and the sword is 14 tons.

Conclusion:

I found out that the statue stands on a 2 meter high slab that rests on the main foundation. The sculpture is hollow.The rigidity of the frame is maintained by 99 metal cables that are constantly under tension.

The elastic force is enormous and is balanced by the gravity force of the sculpture equal to 80,000,000 N = 80 MN.

It was a discovery for me that in the hands of this sculpture there were two different swords. The first one, 28 m long, swayed strongly by 1.5-2 meters in a strong wind, which could lead to the destruction of the entire sculpture. They decided to get out of the situation by creating a new sword of greater mass and length up to 33 m; steel with a high carbon content was used, which increased its strength. Now, in strong winds, the deviation of the sword is no more than 1.5-2 cm.

Ostankino Tower Chief designer - N.V. Nikitin.

Chief architect - L. I. Batalov

Height - 540 meters

The depth of the foundation does not exceed 4.6 meters.

The diameter of the base is 60 meters.

The mass of the tower together with the foundation is 55,000 tons.

The conical base of the structure rests on 10 supports

The ring sections of the tower barrel are compressed with 150 ropes.

The average diameter between the legs is 65 meters.

The height of the supports is 62 meters.

The maximum theoretical deviation of the tower top at maximum design wind speeds is 12 meters

Conclusion:

I found out why the Ostankino Tower is stable:

At the base, it is supported by ten reinforced concrete “legs” in a ring foundation with an outer diameter of 74 m, laid in the ground to a depth of 4.65 m. Such a foundation, carrying 55,000 tons of concrete and steel, providessix times safety margin against capsizing. The bending safety margin was selected double. Stressed reinforced concrete, compressed by steel cables, made the structure of the tower simple and strong.

The amplitude of vibrations of the upper part of the tower in strong winds reaches 3.5 m! I learned that the enemy of the tower is the Sun: due to heating on one side, the tower body has moved 2.25 m at the top, but 150 steel cables keep the tower trunk from bending. The elastic force is great, balanced by the force of gravity at 550000000N=550MN.

I admire Nikitin’s progressive idea of ​​using a relatively shallow foundation, when the tower would have to practically stand on the ground, and its stability would be ensured by the mass of the cone-shaped base being many times greater than the mass of the mast structure.

Before the construction of the Ostankino Tower, our country used the 160 m Shukhov Tower on Shabolovka-37 (design by V.G. Shukhov) - the lightest structure in the world. She is 95 years old this year. Its lightness is due to the fact that all its elements work only in compression (this ensures the strength of the structure), and the openwork of the structure reduces the weight of the tower.

Monument to Peter I (Bronze Horseman).St. Petersburg

“Thunder Stone” is the basis of the Bronze Horseman’s pedestal.

The monument is unique in that it has only three support points:

The “Thunder Stone” was transported on a wooden platform, under which thirty metal balls with a diameter of 5 inches each (prototypes of modern bearings) were placed. The balls rolled along two

parallel to the gutters. The rock traveled a distance of 8.5 versts (9 km); about 1,000 people took part in its transportation.

Conclusion:

I became acquainted with the conditions of stable equilibrium.

I learned that the monument has only three support points:the hind legs of a horse and the wriggling tail of a snake.

In order for the sculpture to become stable, the craftsmen had to lighten its front part, because the thickness of the bronze walls of the front part is much thinner than the back walls, which significantly complicated the casting of the monument.

I was surprised that they began to cut the stone as it moved from the shore of the Gulf of Finland. However, the Empress forbade touching it: the future pedestal must arrive in the capital in its natural form! “Thunder Stone” acquired its current appearance already on Senate Square, having significantly “lost weight” after processing.

"Thunder-stone" was transported on a wooden platform, under which there werethirty metal balls stacked5 inches in diameter each. The balls rolled along two parallel grooves (prototype of modern bearings).

Conclusion. During the project, my hypothesis was confirmed.

Conclusion

P.S.

I don’t stop there; I will continue to monitor new construction technologies. I will also compare it with the architecture of past centuries and consider the symmetry in the design of buildings.

Used information resources:

Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006.

Illustrated encyclopedic dictionary.

Encyclopedia "The World Around Us"

Children's Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006.

Library of visual aids.

Internet resources and Wikipedia

The height of the monument is 10.4 m, weight approximately 1600 tons.

Some time after creating the project and numerous searches, the foundryman was finally found. It turned out to be Emelyan Khailov, a cannon master. Together with a French sculptor, he selected the alloy of the required composition and made tests. The actual casting of the monument began in 1774 and was carried out using incredibly complex technology. It was necessary to ensure that the front walls were necessarily inferior in thickness to the rear ones, which would give the composition the necessary stability. But here’s the bad luck: the pipe through which the molten bronze entered the mold suddenly burst, ruining the upper part of the monument. It had to be removed and another three years spent preparing for the second filling. This time fortune smiled on them, and everything was ready on time and without incident.After three years of preparation, re-casting was carried out, which turned out to be completely successful. It was according to his drawings that the machine that delighted everyone was made, with the help of which the “Thunder Stone” was transported, which formed the basis of the pedestal of the Bronze Horseman.

By the way, about “Thunder the Stone”. He was found in the vicinity of the village of Konnaya Lakhta by the peasant Semyon Vishnyakov, who responded to an appeal in the St. Petersburg Gazette. The megalith weighed 1,600 tons and when it was pulled out of the ground, it left behind a huge pit. It filled with water and a reservoir was formed, called Petrovsky Pond, which has survived to this day. To deliver the stone to the loading site, it was necessary to cover almost 8 kilometers. But how? We decided to wait until winter so that the frozen soil would not sag under its weight.Transportation began on November 15, 1769 and ended on March 27, 1770 (old style) on the shores of the Gulf of Finland. By that time, a dock had been built here for shipping the giant. In order not to waste precious time, they began to cut the stone as they moved. However, the Empress forbade touching it: the future pedestal must arrive in the capital in its natural form! “Thunder Stone” acquired its current appearance already on Senate Square, having significantly “lost weight” after processing. The Thunder Stone was transported on a wooden platform, under which thirty metal balls, each 5 inches in diameter, were placed. The balls rolled along two parallel grooves (a prototype of bearings).

The monument is unique in that it has only three support points. In order for the sculpture to become stable, the craftsmen had to lighten its front part, because the thickness of the bronze walls of the front part is much thinner than the back walls, which significantly complicated the casting of the monument.

Conclusion.

Conclusion : As a result of the work done, I learned how important gravity and elasticity are in architecture, and what is the role of the law of stable equilibrium in the construction of architectural structures. I have given four examples of various monuments and sculptures. The laws of physics apply in all of them. The Alexander Column stands only under the influence of its own gravity, which is achieved by increasing the support area. The Ostankino TV tower rests on ten reinforced concrete “legs”, each of which contains fifteen steel cables. This design increases the rigidity of the building. The “Motherland” sword was replaced with a steel one, with holes at the end, which made it possible to reduce its windage, that is, to reduce the impact of wind. And the thickness of the walls of the Bronze Horseman is uneven, which makes it possible to increase its stability.

I won’t stop there, I will conduct experiments and see these laws in action.

Consider the role of the concepts of “stability”, “strength” and “strength of structures” when creating complex structures

Apply the knowledge gained from studying this topic to explain surrounding phenomena

• 1. The history of the creation of the monument to Peter I as an equilibrium problem

• 2. Consideration of the problem in general: how to ensure the balance of the subject?

• 3. The mystery of the Leaning Tower of Pisa

• 4. Falling Towers of the World

• 5. Requirements for structural elements of buildings and structures

• 6. Conclusions, d/z

• In the courtyard of the workshop, the builders erected a platform imitating a pedestal. The best riders on the best horses took off onto this platform. They repeated these take-offs hundreds of times, until finally the sculptor realized that he would not be able to hold the rearing horse on two supports.

• On each desk you have matchboxes

• Build them into vertical structures with boxes offset relative to each other to the maximum possible height, and so that they do not fall

• Give an answer: what condition must be met during construction so that the structure is high and does not fall?

• 1. The body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium; if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area, then the support area should be increased.

• 2. The probability of a vertical line going beyond the boundaries of the support area is reduced if the center of gravity is located low above the support area, i.e. the principle of minimum potential energy is observed (tumbler principle), which means the center of gravity should be lowered.

• 3. Now make your guesses:

• What needs to be done to keep the rider in a galloping position

• The solution is obvious: to increase the stability of the figure, it is necessary to increase the area of ​​its base, that is, to create another support point. This is the opinion of our students.

• But here is the sculptor’s solution: under the horse’s hind hooves a third point of support appears - a snake, symbolizing the defeated enemies of Russia.

• Despite its tilt, the Leaning Tower of Pisa does not fall, because... a plumb line drawn from the center of gravity does not extend beyond the base.

• The height of the tower is 54.5 m. The top of the tower is deviated from the vertical by 4.5 m.

• The balance will be broken and the tower will fall when the deviation of its top from the vertical reaches 14 m.

• Stack books on the edge of the table so that the top book protrudes above the bottom. Stack books on top of each other until your Leaning Tower of Pisa begins to collapse. Make sure that the books begin to fall when the center of gravity of the stack of books moves beyond the bottom book.

• There are believed to be about 300 leaning towers around the world. Of these, the church tower in Zuurhusen (Germany) takes first place in terms of inclination angle, followed by the Leaning Tower of Pisa, the Bologna Garisenda, and the Oblique Tower of Nevyansk in the Urals. True, some “prizes” were straightened by restorers, for example, the minarets of Ulugbek in Samarkand.

• There are “leaning” towers in Pisa, Bologna, Afghanistan and other places.

• In Bologna, two famous “leaning” towers made of simple brick rise nearby. The taller tower (height 97 m, the top is tilted 1.23 m from the vertical) continues to tilt today. The second reaches half the height of its neighbor and is tilted even more (its height is 49 m, deviation from the vertical is 2.4 m).

• There are two towers in the photo. On the left is the tower of the church in Zuurhusen in Gemania. The angle of deviation from the vertical is 5.19 degrees. On the right is the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Its deflection angle is 4.95 degrees.

• Architectural structures must be built to last.

• Structural elements (wood, stone, steel, concrete, etc.) that bear the main loads of buildings and structures must reliably ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of buildings and structures.

Strength is the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible changes in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials.

• The weight S, resting on the wedge-shaped middle stone of the arch, presses down with force A, but the stone cannot move down; it only puts pressure on neighboring stones. Force A is decomposed according to the parallelogram rule into two forces C and B. Thus, the force pressing from the outside cannot destroy the arch.

Experience 1

• Experience 1

• Take a regular sheet of A4 paper, twist it into a tube and glue it, do the same with three more sheets, put them vertically and put as many identical books on them as possible; the more books, the more the sheets bend and break.

Experience 2

• Experience 2

• Take a corrugated (accordion-folded) sheet of A4 paper, we twist it into a tube and glue it, do the same with three more sheets, put them vertically and put as many identical books on them as possible, this experience shows that such a structure is the most stable and can withstand a greater load than in experiment 1.

• The first television tower in our country (designed by V.G. Shukhov). A special feature of the design is that all of its elements work only in compression. This ensures the strength of the structure. The openwork of the structure hides the weight of the tower. With such a height (148.3 m), this is the lightest structure.

• Increasing the rigidity of the bending beam and vertical column.

• 1. If you place a sheet of paper on two supports, it will easily bend even under its own weight.

• 2. If you change its shape, you can significantly increase the rigidity of such a structure.

• The rigidity of the beam is determined by its cross-sectional profile and material. If a sheet of paper is made in the form of a box or U-shaped or the profile is given the shape of an I-beam, then the rigidity will increase significantly.

• Bending deformation is reduced by various types of supports and struts.

• The higher the architectural structure, the stricter the requirements for its stability.

• The reason for the stability of the Eiffel Tower in Paris and many other high-rise buildings is the location of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground.

• “Neither labor nor dependence should be spared on the construction of the sole and forging.”

The foundation is, in the full sense of the word, the basis of the building. Foundation calculations are based primarily on taking into account the force of pressure on the ground: for a given mass of the structure, the pressure decreases with increasing support area. Lack of proper attention to these dependencies can let builders down. For example, according to the original design, the Ostankino Tower was supposed to rest on 4 “legs”.

• Let's place 15 - 20 empty matchboxes one on top of the other so as to get an even straight column from them. It will be very unstable: the slightest shock is enough for the column to crumble.

Let's make a column of the same matchboxes, installing them so that each upper box is slightly shifted relative to the lower one on which it rests. It seems that the column is very unstable and is about to fall. But it turns out that it can stand without falling for the same amount of time, if not more, than the first, straight column.

At the tumbler internal device with shifted down center of gravity.

• At the tumbler internal device with shifted down center of gravity.

• Using the laws of statics, the tallest building in Taiwan was erected: the 101st floor rises to a height of 508 meters, and inside it there is a giant damper that keeps the skyscraper in a position of stable equilibrium.

• Man-made architectural compositions are based on the results of multifaceted research.

• In this project, students considered the problems of balance, stability, strength and rigidity of structures.

Make a tumbler model

• Make a tumbler model

• Build the Ostankino Tower from paper, cardboard, wood...

• 1. Abysheva N.A. Author's program of the pre-profile interdisciplinary course “Physics and Art” Newspaper “Physics” September 1, No. 2 2006

• 2. Ya.I. Perelman “Entertaining physics” Moscow “Science” 1982

• 3. I.L. Yufanov “Entertaining evenings in physics in high school” Moscow “Enlightenment” 1990.

• 4 I.Ya. Lanin “Extracurricular work in physics” Moscow “Enlightenment” 1977

• 5. M.I. Bludov “Conversations on Physics” Moscow “Enlightenment” 1984 Part 1

- 78.68 KB

Municipal budget

General educational institution

"Secondary school No. 75"

Physics in construction and architecture

Completed by: Strelkova Irina

student of 11B grade

Leaders: physics teacher

Levina Marina Alexandrovna

Construction company engineer

Strelkov Alexander Pavlovich

Novosibirsk

2009

I.Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…..3

II. Main part

1. Basic concepts…………………………………………………….…. .4
2. Thermal engineering calculation of external walls………………………………6
3. Thermal engineering calculation of the attic floor………………..…....8
4. Extract from SNiP 02/23/2003…………………………………………..10

III.Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..………12

IV.List of used literature…………………………..…………….. 13

The topic of my research work is “Physics and Architecture”. I chose this topic because it is very interesting to me. After finishing school I will enter the Novosibirsk State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering. I'm interested in how houses are built, what construction technologies were used, and how physics relates to architecture.

The word “architecture” comes from the Greek “arkitekton”, which means “skilled builder”. Architecture itself belongs to that area of ​​human activity where the union of science, technology and art is especially strong. In architecture, functional, technical and artistic principles (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interconnected.

In the modern sense, architecture is the art of designing and constructing buildings, structures and their complexes. She organizes all life processes. In terms of its emotional impact, architecture is one of the most significant and ancient arts. The power of her artistic images constantly influences a person, because his whole life is spent surrounded by architecture. At the same time, creating a production architecture requires a significant investment of social labor and time. Therefore, the requirements for architecture, along with functional feasibility, convenience and beauty, include the requirements of technical feasibility and efficiency. In addition to the rational layout of premises, corresponding to certain functional processes, the convenience of all buildings is ensured by the correct distribution of stairs, elevators, placement of equipment and engineering devices (sanitary fixtures, heating, ventilation). Thus, the shape of a building is largely determined by a functional pattern, but at the same time it is built according to the laws of beauty.

In architecture, like in no other art, the beauty and usefulness of the functional purpose of buildings are closely intertwined, constantly interacting with each other. An indivisible whole in architecture is created by means of aesthetic expressiveness, the main of which is tectonics - a combination of the design of an architectural form and the work of the material. When implementing his plan, the architect must know many of the physical properties of building materials: density and elasticity, strength and thermal conductivity, sound insulation and waterproofing parameters, functional characteristics of light and color.

The choice of architectural composition is based on data from many sciences: it is necessary to take into account the purpose of the structure, its design, the climate of the area, and the characteristics of natural conditions. Among all sciences, physics occupies an important place, which has especially increased in modern architecture and construction.

In my work I would like to consider the physical properties of building materials.

Strength

Strength is the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible changes in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads, in a narrow sense - only resistance to destruction. The strength of solids is ultimately determined by the interaction forces between the atoms and ions that make up the body. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc.), on operating conditions (temperature, loading rate, duration and number of loading cycles, environmental influences, etc.). Depending on all these factors, various strength measures are adopted in technology: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials.

Sustainability

Stability of equilibrium is the ability of a mechanical system, under the influence of forces in equilibrium, to almost not deviate under any minor random influences (light shocks, gusts of wind, etc.) and after a slight deviation to return to the equilibrium position.

Structural rigidity

Stiffness is the ability of a body or structure to resist the formation of deformation; physical and geometric characteristics of the cross section of a structural element. The concept of stiffness is widely used in solving problems of strength of materials.

Soundproofing

Sound insulation is the attenuation of sound as it penetrates through the fences of buildings; in a broader sense - a set of measures to reduce the level of noise entering premises from the outside. The quantitative measure of sound insulation of building envelopes, expressed in decibels (dB), is called sound insulation capacity. Sound insulation is distinguished from airborne and impact sounds. Sound insulation from airborne sound is characterized by a decrease in the level of this sound (speech, singing, radio broadcasts) when it passes through the fence and is assessed by the frequency response of sound insulation in the frequency range 100-3200 Hz, taking into account the influence of sound absorption of the insulated room. Sound insulation from impact sound (people's steps, moving furniture, etc.) depends on the sound level occurring under the ceiling, and is assessed by the frequency response of the reduced sound pressure level in the same frequency range when working on the ceiling of a standard impact machine, also taking into account sound absorption isolated room.

Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the transfer of heat by structural particles of a substance (molecules, atoms, electrons) during their thermal motion. Such heat exchange can occur in any body with a non-uniform temperature distribution, but the mechanism of heat transfer will depend on the state of aggregation of the substance. The phenomenon of thermal conductivity is that the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules, which determines the temperature of a body, is transferred to another body when they interact or is transferred from more heated areas of the body to less heated areas. Sometimes thermal conductivity is also called a quantitative assessment of the ability of a particular substance to conduct heat.

The generally accepted concept of heat conservation consists of three main provisions:

- Minimizing transmission heat losses.

- The outer shell of the house must be dense.

- Absence (minimization) of cold bridges.

One of the main functions of a house is heat preservation, which is especially important in our inhospitable climate. Therefore, the design of external enclosing surfaces is of a fundamental nature. It is necessary to unconditionally comply with the requirements of SNiP “Thermal Protection of Buildings”, which contain high requirements for thermal protection.

Thermal engineering calculation of external walls

Thermal engineering calculation is performed from the condition

Where R t em is the environmentally feasible resistance to heat transfer, m 2 ˚C/W 2Tel, we do not determine c due to the uncertainty of prices for thermal energy and building materials.

R t normal – normal heat transfer resistance, m 2 ˚С/W according to SNiP for external walls R t norm.=2∙(m 2 ˚С/W) according to table 5.1

R t tr. – required heat transfer resistance m 2 ˚С/W.

Accepted conventions:

KEU – ceramic brick; facial effect.

PL – polystyrene plates.

KREU – thickened ceramic ordinary effect brick GOST 530-80

PN - vapor barrier layer made of polyethylene film 0.2-0.3 mm thick GOST 10354-82.

NPS – lime-sand plaster.

Insulation made from polystyrene concrete slabs. Thermal characteristics of external walls are provided in Table 1.1

Table 1.1.

Name layer	Density Kg/m 3	Layer thickness δ,m	Calculation of coefficient Thermal conductivity λ,W/m 2 WITH	Calculation of coefficient assimilation ρ,W/m 2 WITH
KEU	1600	0,12	0,78	8,48
PL	800	0,14	0,10	1,56
KREU	1600	0,38	0,79	8,48
NPS	1600	0,02	0,81	9,76

According to Table 4.2 SNiP, we determine that for thermal engineering calculations

reflecting the contacting thermal and physical characteristics of materials must be taken according to the column " B" application A1.

The adopted wall design has a heat transfer resistance of 2.379 m 2 ˚C/W, which meets the required standards.

We check the compliance of R t > R t tr.

The required resistance to heat transfer of fences is determined by the shape

R t tr=(h∙(t B ∙t n))/∆ t B α B (1), where t B is the design temperature, WITH internal air, taken according to the table t B =18 WITH.

t n – calculated winter temperature of the outside air taken from the table taking into account the thermal energy of the fence D (except for opening fillers).

D according to the formula:

D=Є R i S i =Σ(j i /λ i)∙S i (1)

D =(0.12/0.72)∙8.48+(0.14/0.1) ∙1.56+(0.38/0.79)∙8.48+(0.02/ 0.81)∙9.76=7.9

Then t n – we take it equal to minus 29 WITH. n – coefficient taking into account the position of the outer surface of the enclosing structure in relation to the outside air, taken according to table 5.5 n=1.

∆ t B – extended differential, WITH m/s temperature of the inner surface of the enclosed structure, taken according to table 5.5, t B =6 WITH

α B – heat transfer coefficient W/m 2 ˚С of the inner surface of the enclosing surface of the enclosing structure, taken according to table 5.5, α B = 8.7 W/ m 2 ˚С

We determine R t tr:

R t tr= (1∙(18+29))/6∙8.7=0.9 m 2 ˚С/W

Since R t =2= R t normal. > R t tr=0.9 m 2 ˚С/W, then the adopted wall design meets the technical requirements.

Thermal calculation of the attic floor

The design of the attic floor and thermal characteristics are provided in Table 2.1

Description of work

In architecture, like in no other art, the beauty and usefulness of the functional purpose of buildings are closely intertwined, constantly interacting with each other. An indivisible whole in architecture is created by means of aesthetic expressiveness, the main of which is tectonics - a combination of the design of an architectural form and the work of the material. When implementing his plan, the architect must know many of the physical properties of building materials: density and elasticity, strength and thermal conductivity, sound insulation and waterproofing parameters, functional characteristics of light and color.

Content

I.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….…..3
II. Main part
1. Basic concepts…………………………………………………….…..4
2. Thermal engineering calculation of external walls………………………………6
3. Thermal engineering calculation of the attic floor………………..…....8
4. Extract from SNiP 23-02-2003…………………………………………..10
III.Conclusion…………………………………………………………..………12
IV.List of used literature…………………………..……………..13

Plan Architecture as the art of designing and building objects that shape the human environment. Architecture as the art of designing and building objects that shape the human environment. Stone architecture of the ancient world and its achievements. Seven wonders of the world. Stone architecture of the ancient world and its achievements. Seven wonders of the world. Buildings, structures and ensembles that make up the world cultural heritage: the need for careful treatment of architectural monuments. Buildings, structures and ensembles that make up the world cultural heritage: the need for careful treatment of architectural monuments. Requirements for structural elements of buildings and structures and their consideration in architectural practice and construction. Requirements for structural elements of buildings and structures and their consideration in architectural practice and construction. Problems of modern urban planning. Problems of modern urban planning. What will the cities of the future be like: some architectural ideas. What will the cities of the future be like: some architectural ideas.

Architecture (Latin architectura, from Greek architekton builder) is the art of designing and building objects that design the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture, buildings, ensembles, as well as structures that organize open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). Architecture (Latin architectura, from Greek architekton builder) is the art of designing and building objects that design the spatial environment for human life and activity. Works of architecture, buildings, ensembles, as well as structures that organize open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.). Architecture itself belongs to that area of ​​human activity where the union of science, technology and art is especially strong. In architecture, functional, technical and artistic principles (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interconnected. Architecture itself belongs to that area of ​​human activity where the union of science, technology and art is especially strong. In architecture, functional, technical and artistic principles (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interconnected.

The Sydney Opera House is one of the symbols of the city. Its architectural dominant. In 1954, city authorities announced a competition for the best project. The Danish architect Jorn Utson won, but his project turned out to be too expensive, Utson was forced to abandon it. However, in 1973 (almost twenty years later) the building was finally completed. Now the Sydney Opera House is a huge complex, including six auditoriums and two restaurants. The Sydney Opera House is one of the symbols of the city. Its architectural dominant. In 1954, city authorities announced a competition for the best project. The Danish architect Jorn Utson won, but his project turned out to be too expensive, Utson was forced to abandon it. However, in 1973 (almost twenty years later) the building was finally completed. Now the Sydney Opera House is a huge complex, including six auditoriums and two restaurants.

Landscape architecture Landscape architecture is the art of creating a harmonious combination of the natural landscape with human-developed territories, settlements, architectural complexes and structures. The goals of landscape architecture include the protection of natural landscapes and the creation of new ones, the systematic development of a system of natural and artificial landscapes. Landscape architecture is the art of creating a harmonious combination of natural landscapes with human-developed territories, settlements, architectural complexes and structures. The goals of landscape architecture include the protection of natural landscapes and the creation of new ones, the systematic development of a system of natural and artificial landscapes.

The figurative and aesthetic principle in architecture is connected with its social function and is manifested in the formation of the volumetric-spatial and constructive system of the structure. The figurative and aesthetic principle in architecture is connected with its social function and is manifested in the formation of the volumetric-spatial and constructive system of the structure. La Défense, a business and shopping district in the northwestern part of Paris.

The expressive means of architecture are composition, rhythm, architectonics, scale, plasticity, synthesis of arts, etc. The expressive means of architecture are composition, rhythm, architectonics, scale, plasticity, synthesis of arts, etc. The choice of architectural composition is based on the data of many sciences: you need to take into account not only the purpose of the structure and its design features, the organic nature of the building or structure in the surrounding development, but also the climate of the area, features of natural conditions, etc. The choice of architectural composition is based on data from many sciences: it is necessary to take into account not only the purpose of the structure and its design features , the organic nature of a building or structure in the surrounding development, but also the climate of the area, the characteristics of natural conditions, etc. Among all these sciences, physics occupies an important place, which has especially increased in modern architecture and construction. Among all these sciences, physics occupies an important place, which has especially increased in modern architecture and construction.

The architecture of the ancient world is called monumental stone architecture, because with the help of simple tools it was necessary to trim and polish, and then fit huge stone blocks to each other with amazing precision. The architecture of the ancient world is called monumental stone architecture, because with the help of simple tools it was necessary to trim and polish, and then fit huge stone blocks to each other with amazing precision. Antique natural stone masonry (Sardinia).

The Seven Wonders of the World were the name given in ancient times to the seven works of architecture and sculpture that surpassed all others in their colossus and luxury, namely: The Seven Wonders of the World were the name given in ancient times to the seven works of architecture and sculpture that surpassed all others in their colossality and luxury, namely: 1) pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs, 1) pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs, 2) hanging gardens of the Babylonian queen Semiramis, 2) hanging gardens of the Babylonian queen Semiramis, 3) Ephesus temple of Artemis, 3) Ephesus temple of Artemis, 4) statue of Olympian Zeus, 4) statue of Olympian Zeus, 5) tombstone of King Mausolus, in Halicarnassus, 5) tombstone of King Mausolus, in Halicarnassus, 6) Colossus of Rhodes, 6) Colossus of Rhodes, 7) lighthouse tower erected in Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus (at the end of the 3rd century BC. Chr.) and had about 180 m in height. 7) a lighthouse tower erected in Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus (at the end of the 3rd century BC) and had a height of about 180 m.

Of the seven wonders of the world, the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs have survived to us. Of the seven wonders of the world, the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs have survived to us. At Giza there are three largest pyramids, belonging to the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre and Menkara, several smaller ones, a great sphinx, between whose paws a small temple is placed, and another granite temple to the southeast of the first. In one of the temple halls, in a well, Mariette found the statues of Khafre, broken, except for one. In addition, there are many tombs of individuals and inscriptions. The pyramids were described by Davinson (1763), Niebuhr (1761), the French expedition (1799), Hamilton (1801) and many others. etc. In Giza there are three largest pyramids, belonging to the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre and Menkara, several smaller ones, a great sphinx, between whose paws a small temple is placed, and another granite temple to the southeast of the first. In one of the temple halls, in a well, Mariette found the statues of Khafre, broken, except for one. In addition, there are many tombs of individuals and inscriptions. The pyramids were described by Davinson (1763), Niebuhr (1761), the French expedition (1799), Hamilton (1801) and many others. etc.

Near the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre (Khafra) in El Giza there is a fantastic creature carved from the rock, the Great Sphinx, with the body of a lion and the portrait head of Pharaoh Khafre. The height of the giant figure is 20 m, length 73 m. The Arabs call him Abu el-Khol “father of silence”. Between the paws of the sphinx stands a stele of Pharaoh Thutmose IV. According to legend, the prince once dozed off here and saw in a dream how he would be crowned with the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt if he cleared the sand from the sphinx. Thutmose did just that, and his dream came true. Thutmose became a pharaoh. The sphinx's nose was shot off by Mamluk soldiers in the Middle Ages. Near the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre (Khafra) in El Giza there is a fantastic creature carved from the rock, the Great Sphinx, with the body of a lion and the portrait head of Pharaoh Khafre. The height of the giant figure is 20 m, length 73 m. The Arabs call him Abu el-Khol “father of silence”. Between the paws of the sphinx stands a stele of Pharaoh Thutmose IV. According to legend, the prince once dozed off here and saw in a dream how he would be crowned with the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt if he cleared the sand from the sphinx. Thutmose did just that, and his dream came true. Thutmose became a pharaoh. The sphinx's nose was shot off by Mamluk soldiers in the Middle Ages.

Mysteries of the pyramids There are many unsolved mysteries in the pyramids and temples, striking in their grandeur and grandeur. Here is one of them. The pyramids are made of huge slabs. How could the ancients, with the help of their imperfect tools, raise these blocks to such a height? Not a single modern crane can cope with the task of lifting solid slabs with a volume of up to 400 cubic meters. meters! The pyramids and temples, striking in their grandeur and grandeur, contain many unsolved mysteries. Here is one of them. The pyramids are made of huge slabs. How could the ancients, with the help of their imperfect tools, raise these blocks to such a height? Not a single modern crane can cope with the task of lifting solid slabs with a volume of up to 400 cubic meters. meters!

In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (entered into force in 1975). The Convention was ratified (beginning in 1992) by 123 participating countries, including Russia. The World Heritage List includes 358 objects from 80 countries (at the beginning of 1992): individual architectural structures and ensembles, cities, archaeological reserves, national parks. States on whose territory World Heritage sites are located undertake obligations to preserve them. In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (entered into force in 1975). The Convention was ratified (beginning in 1992) by 123 participating countries, including Russia. The World Heritage List includes 358 objects from 80 countries (at the beginning of 1992): individual architectural structures and ensembles, cities, archaeological reserves, national parks. States on whose territory World Heritage sites are located undertake obligations to preserve them.

The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are included in the World Heritage List. The Moscow Kremlin is the historical core of Moscow. Located on Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of the Moscow River, at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (at the beginning of the 19th century it was enclosed in a pipe). Modern brick walls and towers were erected in Towers in the 17th century. received the existing tiered and tented completions. The Moscow Kremlin is one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles in the world. Monuments of ancient Russian architecture: the Assumption (147,579), Annunciation () and Arkhangelsk (150,508) cathedrals, the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (built on in 1600), the Faceted Chamber (148,791), the Terem Palace (163,536) and others. The Senate building, the Grand Kremlin Palace, and the Armory Chamber were built. The Palace of Congresses (now the State Kremlin Palace) was built. Among the 20 towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the most significant are Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, Troitskaya, and Borovitskaya. On the territory there are wonderful monuments of Russian foundry “Tsar Cannon” (16th century) and “Tsar Bell” (18th century). The Moscow Kremlin is the historical core of Moscow. Located on Borovitsky Hill, on the left bank of the Moscow River, at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (at the beginning of the 19th century it was enclosed in a pipe). Modern brick walls and towers were erected in Towers in the 17th century. received the existing tiered and tented completions. The Moscow Kremlin is one of the most beautiful architectural ensembles in the world. Monuments of ancient Russian architecture: the Assumption (147,579), Annunciation () and Arkhangelsk (150,508) cathedrals, the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (built on in 1600), the Faceted Chamber (148,791), the Terem Palace (163,536) and others. The Senate building, the Grand Kremlin Palace, and the Armory Chamber were built. The Palace of Congresses (now the State Kremlin Palace) was built. Among the 20 towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the most significant are Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, Troitskaya, and Borovitskaya. On the territory there are wonderful monuments of Russian foundry “Tsar Cannon” (16th century) and “Tsar Bell” (18th century).

Red Square is the central square of Moscow, adjacent to the Kremlin from the east. It was formed at the end of the 15th century, called Krasnaya (beautiful) from the 2nd half of the 17th century. Originally a trading area, from the 16th century. place of ceremonies. It is bordered on the west by the Kremlin wall with towers, separated by a moat. In 1534 the Execution Place was built. Within the boundaries of Kitai-gorod. The Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected. After the fire of 1812, the ditch was filled in and the shopping arcades were rebuilt. In 1818, a monument to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky was unveiled. At the end of the 19th century. The Historical Museum and new Upper Trading Rows (GUM) were built. The mausoleum of V.I. Lenin was built. The square is paved with paving stones. The Kazan Cathedral was recreated (circa 1636; dismantled in 1936). From Red Square, the distance is measured along all highways leading from Moscow. Red Square is the central square of Moscow, adjacent to the Kremlin from the east. It was formed at the end of the 15th century, called Krasnaya (beautiful) from the 2nd half of the 17th century. Originally a trading area, from the 16th century. place of ceremonies. It is bordered on the west by the Kremlin wall with towers, separated by a moat. In 1534 the Execution Place was built. Within the borders of Kitai-gorod. The Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected. After the fire of 1812, the ditch was filled in and the shopping arcades were rebuilt. In 1818, a monument to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky was unveiled. At the end of the 19th century. The Historical Museum and new Upper Trading Rows (GUM) were built. The mausoleum of V.I. Lenin was built. The square is paved with paving stones. The Kazan Cathedral was recreated (circa 1636; dismantled in 1936). From Red Square, the distance is measured along all highways leading from Moscow.

Unfortunately, in By order of the Soviet government, many architectural monuments were demolished on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, including the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor (1330), the ensemble of the Chudov Monastery with the cathedral (1503) and the Ascension Monastery with the Catherine Church (180817), the Small Nicholas Palace (from 1775) and other. Unfortunately, in By order of the Soviet government, many architectural monuments were demolished on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, including the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor (1330), the ensemble of the Chudov Monastery with the cathedral (1503) and the Ascension Monastery with the Catherine Church (180817), the Small Nicholas Palace (from 1775) and other. In 1992, Russia ratified the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage; obligations for their preservation will be strictly fulfilled. In 1992, Russia ratified the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage; obligations for their preservation will be strictly fulfilled.

The World Heritage List includes not only the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square, but also other equally beautiful and majestic ensembles, nature reserves, and buildings of Russia: The World Heritage List includes not only the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square, but also other no less beautiful and majestic ensembles, nature reserves , buildings of Russia: Historical center of St. Petersburg; Historical center of St. Petersburg; Trinity Lavra of Sergius in the city of Sergiev Posad, founded in the 40s. 14th century by Sergius of Radonezh; Trinity Lavra of Sergius in the city of Sergiev Posad, founded in the 40s. 14th century by Sergius of Radonezh; Church of the Intercession on the Nerl in the Vladimir region, near Bogolyubov, at the confluence of the Nerl River and the Klyazma River, an architectural monument of the Vladimir-Suzdal school (1165); Church of the Intercession on the Nerl in the Vladimir region, near Bogolyubov, at the confluence of the Nerl River and the Klyazma River, an architectural monument of the Vladimir-Suzdal school (1165); Novgorod Kremlin; Novgorod Kremlin; Museum-Reserve of Wooden Architecture Kizhi Museum-Reserve of Wooden Architecture Kizhi, etc., etc.

Requirements for structural elements of buildings Architectural structures must be built to last. Architectural structures must be built to last. Structural elements (wood, stone, steel, concrete, etc.) that bear the main loads of buildings and structures must reliably ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of buildings and structures. Structural elements (wood, stone, steel, concrete, etc.) that bear the main loads of buildings and structures must reliably ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of buildings and structures.strengthstiffnessstabilitystrengthstiffnessstability

Among the historical monuments in some cities of Europe and Asia, the so-called. "falling" towers. There are such towers in Pisa, Bologna, Afghanistan and other places. Among the historical monuments in some cities of Europe and Asia, the so-called. "falling" towers. There are such towers in Pisa, Bologna, Afghanistan and other places. In Bologna, two famous “leaning” towers made of simple brick rise nearby. A taller tower (height 97 m, the top is deviated 1.23 m from the vertical), which continues to tilt today torredegli Asinelli, from the top of which the Euganean Mountains, located north of the Po River, are visible. Latorre Garisenda reaches half the height of its neighbor and is tilted even more (its height is 49 m, deviation from the vertical is 2.4 m). In Bologna, two famous “leaning” towers made of simple brick rise nearby. A taller tower (height 97 m, the top is deviated 1.23 m from the vertical), which continues to tilt today torredegli Asinelli, from the top of which the Euganean Mountains, located north of the Po River, are visible. Latorre Garisenda reaches half the height of its neighbor and is tilted even more (its height is 49 m, deviation from the vertical is 2.4 m). Why are the towers inclined? Perhaps the towers were built inclined from the very beginning according to the intricate idea of ​​​​a medieval architect, who calculated the slope of the towers so that over many years the fall of the “leaning” towers did not occur. It is possible that the towers were initially straight and then tilted due to one-sided subsidence of the soil, as happened with one of the bell towers in Arkhangelsk. Why are the towers inclined? Perhaps the towers were built inclined from the very beginning according to the intricate idea of ​​​​a medieval architect, who calculated the slope of the towers so that over many years the fall of the “leaning” towers did not occur. It is possible that the towers were initially straight and then tilted due to one-sided subsidence of the soil, as happened with one of the bell towers in Arkhangelsk.

On the cathedral square to the east of the cathedral rises the famous leaning tower (Campanile), cylindrical in shape, built in the years. architects Bonann from Pisa, Wilhelm from Innsbruck and others; the tower has 8 tiers, its height is 54.5 m, the deviation from the vertical is 4.3 m; it is believed that the strange shape of the tower was originally a consequence of subsidence of the soil, and then it was artificially strengthened and left in this form. On the cathedral square to the east of the cathedral rises the famous leaning tower (Campanile), cylindrical in shape, built in the years. architects Bonann from Pisa, Wilhelm from Innsbruck and others; the tower has 8 tiers, its height is 54.5 m, the deviation from the vertical is 4.3 m; it is believed that the strange shape of the tower was originally a consequence of subsidence of the soil, and then it was artificially strengthened and left in this form.

From the instructions to ancient architects: “You should not spare any labor or dependence on the construction of the sole and the frame.” From the instructions to ancient architects: “You should not spare any labor or dependence on the construction of the sole and the frame.” This is understandable. The foundation is, in the full sense of the word, the basis of the building. Foundation calculations are based primarily on taking into account the force of pressure on the ground: for a given mass of the structure, the pressure decreases with increasing support area. Lack of proper attention to these dependencies can let builders down. For example, according to the original design, the Ostankino Tower was supposed to rest on 4 “legs”. This is understandable. The foundation is, in the full sense of the word, the basis of the building. Foundation calculations are based primarily on taking into account the force of pressure on the ground: for a given mass of the structure, the pressure decreases with increasing support area. Lack of proper attention to these dependencies can let builders down. For example, according to the original design, the Ostankino Tower was supposed to rest on 4 “legs”.

How to improve balance stability? A body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area. Equilibrium is lost if the line of gravity does not pass through the area of ​​support. How to improve balance stability? A body (structure, structure) is in a position of stable equilibrium if the line of action of gravity never goes beyond the support area. Equilibrium is lost if the line of gravity does not pass through the area of ​​support. How to improve balance stability? 1. The support area should be increased by placing the support points further apart. It is best if they are placed outside the projection of the body onto the plane of support. 2. The probability of a vertical line going beyond the boundaries of the support area is reduced if the center of gravity is located low above the support area, i.e. the principle of minimum potential energy is observed.

The higher the architectural structure, the stricter the requirements for its stability. The higher the architectural structure, the stricter the requirements for its stability. The authors of the Ostankino TV tower project are confident in the engineering calculations for the stability of the structure: the huge half-kilometer tower was built on the tumbler principle. Three quarters of the total weight of the tower falls on one ninth of its height, i.e. the main weight of the tower is concentrated below at the base. It would take colossal forces to make such a tower fall. She is not afraid of hurricane winds or earthquakes. The authors of the Ostankino TV tower project are confident in the engineering calculations for the stability of the structure: the huge half-kilometer tower was built on the tumbler principle. Three quarters of the total weight of the tower falls on one ninth of its height, i.e. the main weight of the tower is concentrated below at the base. It would take colossal forces to make such a tower fall. She is not afraid of hurricane winds or earthquakes. The reason for the stability of the Alexandria Column in St. Petersburg, the Eiffel Tower in Paris and many other high-rise structures is the location of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground. The reason for the stability of the Alexandria Column in St. Petersburg, the Eiffel Tower in Paris and many other high-rise structures is the location of the center of mass of the structure close to the ground.

The Ostankino Tower in Moscow is an outwardly light, elegant structure with a height of 533 m, successfully integrated into the surrounding landscape. The Ostankino Tower in Moscow is an outwardly light, elegant structure with a height of 533 m, successfully integrated into the surrounding landscape. Rising above the surrounding buildings, expressive and dynamic in composition, the tower plays the role of the main high-rise dominant and a kind of emblem of the city. Rising above the surrounding buildings, expressive and dynamic in composition, the tower plays the role of the main high-rise dominant and a kind of emblem of the city.

Why is the Ostankino Tower stable? At the base, the tower is supported by ten reinforced concrete “legs” in a ring foundation with an outer diameter of 74 m, laid in the ground to a depth of 4.65 m. Such a foundation, bearing tons of concrete and steel, provides a six-fold safety margin for overturning. For bending, the safety margin was chosen to be double. And this is no coincidence, since the vibration amplitude of the upper part of the tower in strong winds reaches 3.5 m! In addition to the wind, the sun became the tower’s enemy: due to heating on one side, the tower body moved 2.25 m at the top, but 150 steel cables kept the tower barrel from bending. Such a grandiose and graceful structure acquired particular expressiveness and harmony because the tower was built without braces and additional fastenings. At the base, the tower is supported by ten reinforced concrete “legs” in a ring foundation with an outer diameter of 74 m, laid in the ground to a depth of 4.65 m. Such a foundation, bearing tons of concrete and steel, provides a six-fold safety margin for overturning. For bending, the safety margin was chosen to be double. And this is no coincidence, since the vibration amplitude of the upper part of the tower in strong winds reaches 3.5 m! In addition to the wind, the sun became the tower’s enemy: due to heating on one side, the tower body moved 2.25 m at the top, but 150 steel cables kept the tower barrel from bending. Such a grandiose and graceful structure acquired particular expressiveness and harmony because the tower was built without braces and additional fastenings.

It was found that one of the most beautiful and majestic buildings in St. Petersburg - St. Isaac's Cathedral - settled by 1 mm annually. In the 70s. the building was closed for restoration: work was carried out to prevent the building from subsiding. To compact the foundation, a solution of a mixture of concrete and liquid glass was placed in it. In such mixtures, friction and viscosity of materials play a special role. Physics studies the laws of friction, and architecture uses them. It was found that one of the most beautiful and majestic buildings in St. Petersburg - St. Isaac's Cathedral - settled by 1 mm annually. In the 70s. the building was closed for restoration: work was carried out to prevent the building from subsiding. To compact the foundation, a solution of a mixture of concrete and liquid glass was placed in it. In such mixtures, friction and viscosity of materials play a special role. Physics studies the laws of friction, and architecture uses them.

An architectural monument is a scientific document, a historical source; the main goal of the restoration is to “read” this document and carefully strengthen the authentic ancient parts of the monument; To achieve the restoration goal, the least amount of work possible is carried out. An architectural monument is a scientific document, a historical source; the main goal of the restoration is to “read” this document and carefully strengthen the authentic ancient parts of the monument; To achieve the restoration goal, the least amount of work possible is carried out. Modern restoration techniques allow the use of all the latest achievements of construction technology and various physical and chemical methods to strengthen the monument. The materials used for restoration must be similar in appearance to the materials from which the monument was constructed; counterfeiting of the original material is not allowed. Dismantling of original parts of the monument is, as a rule, excluded. Modern restoration techniques allow the use of all the latest achievements of construction technology and various physical and chemical methods to strengthen the monument. The materials used for restoration must be similar in appearance to the materials from which the monument was constructed; counterfeiting of the original material is not allowed. Dismantling of original parts of the monument is, as a rule, excluded.

Restoration work is preceded by a thorough and comprehensive study of the architectural monument: full-scale (architectural and engineering) and historical and archival research. The causes of dilapidation, damage, and disturbance of the static balance of the monument are studied on location; A variety of technical means are used to study the condition of structures. Possible ways to eliminate damage and deformation of the monument are clarified and the specific features of the main building materials and solutions are examined. Restoration work is preceded by a thorough and comprehensive study of the architectural monument: full-scale (architectural and engineering) and historical and archival research. The causes of dilapidation, damage, and disturbance of the static balance of the monument are studied on location; A variety of technical means are used to study the condition of structures. Possible ways to eliminate damage and deformation of the monument are clarified and the specific features of the main building materials and solutions are examined. In the course of historical and archival research, all, even indirect, written sources, photographs, paintings, drawings in which the monument is reproduced, as well as other images of it (for example, on medals, seals) are studied. In the course of historical and archival research, all, even indirect, written sources, photographs, paintings, drawings in which the monument is reproduced, as well as other images of it (for example, on medals, seals) are studied.

Learning from nature Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong. Achieving high constructive efficiency in architectural and construction practice in recent years is achieved by physical modeling of natural forms. Any structure must be durable, and therefore strong. Achieving high constructive efficiency in architectural and construction practice in recent years is achieved by physical modeling of natural forms.

For example, the stem of almost all representatives of the grass family is a straw, thickened at the nodes and hollow at the internodes. This stem structure combines great strength and lightness of construction. The principle of straw structure was used in the construction of the tallest building in our country - the Ostankino TV tower. For example, the stem of almost all representatives of the grass family is a straw, thickened at the nodes and hollow at the internodes. This stem structure combines great strength and lightness of construction. The principle of straw structure was used in the construction of the tallest building in our country - the Ostankino TV tower. Architects borrowed from nature the principle of “structure resistance in form.” The strength of a structure depends on its shape: a corrugated structure is stronger than a flat one. Using this principle, folded domes with a span of m were built in the USA, and in France they covered a pavilion with a span of 218 m. Architects borrowed from nature the principle of “structure resistance in form.” The strength of a structure depends on its shape: a corrugated structure is stronger than a flat one. Using this principle, folded domes with a span of m were built in the USA, and in France they covered a pavilion with a span of 218 m. The strength of arched structures is significantly increased due to membrane films that create pre-stress. This allows the construction of dome-shaped structures of enormous size without columns or even decorative supports. The strength of arched structures is significantly increased due to membrane films that create pre-stress. This allows the construction of dome-shaped structures of enormous size without columns or even decorative supports.

Theory and practice of urban planning and development Urban planning covers a complex set of socio-economic, construction and technical, architectural, artistic, sanitary and hygienic problems. Urban planning covers a complex set of socio-economic, construction and technical, architectural, artistic, sanitary and hygienic problems. Regular planning (rectangular, radial-ring, fan, etc.), taking into account local conditions, construction of architectural ensembles, landscape architecture, etc. serve to streamline the planning and development of cities. Regular planning (rectangular, radial-ring) serves to streamline the planning and development of cities , fan, etc.), taking into account local conditions, construction of architectural ensembles, landscape architecture, etc. The first experiments in organizing cities and settlements date back to the middle. 3rd beginning 2nd millennium BC e. In Dr. Egypt and Mesopotamia used to divide the city into geometrically regular blocks. Medieval cities, surrounded by strong walls, had crooked and narrow streets around the castle, city cathedral or market square. Residential areas outside the city walls were surrounded by a new ring of walls, and sometimes ring streets were formed in their place, which, in combination with radial streets, determined the formation of the characteristic radial-ring (less often fan) structure of cities. The first experiments in organizing cities and settlements date back to the middle. 3rd beginning 2nd millennium BC e. In Dr. Egypt and Mesopotamia used to divide the city into geometrically regular blocks. Medieval cities, surrounded by strong walls, had crooked and narrow streets around the castle, city cathedral or market square. Residential areas outside the city walls were surrounded by a new ring of walls, and sometimes ring streets were formed in their place, which, in combination with radial streets, determined the formation of the characteristic radial-ring (less often fan) structure of cities.

The rapid growth of cities from the mid-19th century, then the rapid development of motor transport, the emergence of colossal urban areas (urban agglomerations), and pollution of the urban environment prompted the search for new principles of urban planning (zoning of urban areas, regional planning, urban road systems, types of garden cities, satellite, modern residential areas and microdistricts). The main tasks of modern urban planning are the creation of cities and towns with an individual appearance, the solution of urban environmental problems, overcoming the monotony of standard development, the preservation and scientifically based reconstruction of old urban centers, the careful preservation and restoration of cultural monuments, their combination with modern buildings. The rapid growth of cities from the mid-19th century, then the rapid development of motor transport, the emergence of colossal urban areas (urban agglomerations), and pollution of the urban environment prompted the search for new principles of urban planning (zoning of urban areas, regional planning, urban road systems, types of garden cities, satellite, modern residential areas and microdistricts). The main tasks of modern urban planning are the creation of cities and towns with an individual appearance, the solution of urban environmental problems, overcoming the monotony of standard development, the preservation and scientifically based reconstruction of old urban centers, the careful preservation and restoration of cultural monuments, their combination with modern buildings. Modern cities are real megacities. Modern cities are real megacities. Megalopolis (megalopolis) (from the Greek megas large and polis city; the name of the ancient Greek city of Megalopolis, which arose as a result of the merger of more than 35 settlements) is the largest form of settlement, resulting from the fusion of a large number of neighboring agglomerations of settlements. The most famous megalopolises: Tokyo Osaka (Japan), the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine (Germany, the Netherlands), London Liverpool (Great Britain), the Great Lakes region (USA Canada), Southern California region (USA). Megalopolis (megalopolis) (from the Greek megas large and polis city; the name of the ancient Greek city of Megalopolis, which arose as a result of the merger of more than 35 settlements) is the largest form of settlement, resulting from the fusion of a large number of neighboring agglomerations of settlements. The most famous megalopolises: Tokyo Osaka (Japan), the lower and middle reaches of the Rhine (Germany, the Netherlands), London Liverpool (Great Britain), the Great Lakes region (USA Canada), Southern California region (USA). What should the cities of the future be like? Perhaps the cities of the future will go underground. Today, numerous underground passages are being built, new metro lines and multi-tiered underground garages are being built. There are already over 50 underground shopping centers in Tokyo, and New Ginza Street is built underground. In France, an entire section of the new boulevard went under the Bois de Boulogne, and part of the underground city was opened under Place de l'Etoile. For the 850th anniversary of Moscow, Manezhnaya Square was reconstructed: a huge underground shopping complex with all its infrastructure was opened, making the square pedestrian. Perhaps the cities of the future will go underground. Today, numerous underground passages are being built, new metro lines and multi-tiered underground garages are being built. There are already over 50 underground shopping centers in Tokyo, and New Ginza Street is built underground. In France, an entire section of the new boulevard went under the Bois de Boulogne, and part of the underground city was opened under Place de l'Etoile. For the 850th anniversary of Moscow, Manezhnaya Square was reconstructed: a huge underground shopping complex with all its infrastructure was opened, making the square pedestrian. Underground cities will most likely play the role of “utility rooms.” Underground cities will most likely play the role of “utility rooms.”

Some architectural ideas: Some architectural ideas: P. Maimon proposed to build a suspended city in Tokyo Bay on conical meshes of steel ropes, which is not afraid of tremors and sea tides. P. Maimon proposed to build a suspended city in Tokyo Bay on conical meshes of steel ropes, which is not afraid of tremors and sea tides. R. Dernach developed a project for the construction of cities floating on water. R. Dernach developed a project for the construction of cities floating on water. S. Friedman believes that the future belongs to bridge cities connecting Europe, Asia, Africa and America. S. Friedman believes that the future belongs to bridge cities connecting Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Blue Cities Ideas. Dollinger developed a project for a high-rise residential building like... a Christmas tree about 100 m high with a support surface of 25 square meters. m with separate branches-apartments, and V. Frishman used a similar idea to develop a project for an 850-story tree house with a height of 3200 m. The foundation of such a tree-city should go into the ground to a depth of 150 m. This giant is designed to accommodate 500 thousand Human. Blue Cities Ideas. Dollinger developed a project for a high-rise residential building like... a Christmas tree about 100 m high with a support surface of 25 square meters. m with separate branches-apartments, and V. Frishman used a similar idea to develop a project for an 850-story tree house with a height of 3200 m. The foundation of such a tree-city should go into the ground to a depth of 150 m. This giant is designed to accommodate 500 thousand Human.

Information resources used: 1. Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006, 10 CDs. 2. Illustrated encyclopedic dictionary, 2 CDs. 3. Encyclopedia “The World Around Us”, CD. 4. Children's Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius 2006, 2 CDs. 5. Physics, grades 7 – 11. Library of visual aids, CD, etc.

Strength Strength is the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible changes in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads; in the narrow sense, only resistance to destruction. The strength of solids is ultimately determined by the interaction forces between the atoms and ions that make up the body. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc.), on operating conditions (temperature, loading rate, duration and number of loading cycles, environmental influences, etc.). Depending on all these factors, various strength measures are adopted in technology: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials. Strength is the ability of a material to resist destruction, as well as irreversible change in shape (plastic deformation) under the action of external loads, in the narrow sense only resistance to destruction. The strength of solids is ultimately determined by the interaction forces between the atoms and ions that make up the body. Strength depends not only on the material itself, but also on the type of stress state (tension, compression, bending, etc.), on operating conditions (temperature, loading rate, duration and number of loading cycles, environmental influences, etc.). Depending on all these factors, various strength measures are adopted in technology: tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue limit, etc. Increasing the strength of materials is achieved by thermal and mechanical treatment, the introduction of alloying additives into alloys, radioactive irradiation, and the use of reinforced and composite materials.

Stability of equilibrium Stability of equilibrium is the ability of a mechanical system, under the influence of forces in equilibrium, to almost not deviate under any minor random influences (light shocks, gusts of wind, etc.) and after a slight deviation to return to the equilibrium position. Stability of equilibrium is the ability of a mechanical system, under the influence of forces in equilibrium, to almost not deviate under any minor random influences (light shocks, gusts of wind, etc.) and after a slight deviation to return to the equilibrium position.

Structural rigidity Stiffness is the ability of a body or structure to resist the formation of deformation; physical and geometric characteristics of the cross section of a structural element. The concept of stiffness is widely used in solving problems of strength of materials. Stiffness is the ability of a body or structure to resist the formation of deformation; physical and geometric characteristics of the cross section of a structural element. The concept of stiffness is widely used in solving problems of strength of materials.