During veterinary-sanitary or forensic examinations, the doctor has to determine the type of animal by the carcass, corpse, their parts or individual bones. Often the decisive factor is the presence or absence of some detail or form feature on them. Knowledge of the comparative anatomical features of the structure of bones allows us to confidently draw a conclusion about the type of animal.

NECK VERTEBRAE - vertebrae cervicales.

Atlant - atlas - the first cervical vertebra (Fig. 22).

In cattle, the transverse processes (wings of the atlas) are flat, massive, set horizontally, their caudolateral acute angle is drawn back, and the dorsal arch is wide. On the wing there is an intervertebral and wing foramen, there is no transverse one.

In sheep, the caudal margin of the dorsal arch has a deeper, gentle notch, and there are also only two openings on the wing.

Rice. 22. Atlas cows (I), sheep III), goats (III), horses (IV), pigs (V), dogs (VI)

In goats, the lateral edges of the wings are slightly rounded, and the caudal notch of the dorsal arch is deeper and narrower than in sheep and cattle, and there is also no transverse foramen.

In horses, on significantly developed thinner obliquely located wings, in addition to the alar and intervertebral foramen, there is a transverse foramen. The caudal edge of the dorsal arch has a deep, gentle notch.

In pigs, all cervical vertebrae are very short. Atlas has massive narrow wings with thickened rounded edges. The wing has all three openings, but the transverse one can be seen only along the caudal margin of the wings of the atlas, where it forms a small channel.

In dogs, the atlas has widely spaced lamellar wings with a deep triangular notch along its caudal margin. There is both an intervertebral and a transverse foramen, but instead of a wing hole, there is a wing notch - incisure alaris.

The axis, or epistrophy, is axis s. epistropheus - the second cervical vertebra (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Axis (epistrophy) of a cow (1), sheep (II), goat (III), horse (IV), pig (V), dog (VI)

Rice. 24. Cervical vertebrae (middle) cow* (O, horses (II), pigs (III), dogs (IV)

In cattle, the axial vertebra (epistrophy) is massive. The odontoid process is lamellar, semi-cylindrical. The crest of the axial vertebra is thickened along the dorsal margin, and the caudal articular processes protrude independently at its base.

In horses, the axial vertebra is long, the odontoid process is wide, flattened, the crest of the axial vertebra bifurcates in the caudal part, and the articular surfaces of the caudal articular processes lie on the ventral side of this bifurcation.

In pigs, the epistrophy is short, the odontoid process in the form of a wedge has a conical shape, the crest is high (raises in the caudal part).

In dogs, the axial vertebra is long, with a long wedge-shaped odontoid process, the ridge is large, lamellar, protrudes forward and hangs over the odontoid process.

Typical cervical vertebrae - vertebrae cervicales - third, fourth and fifth (Fig. 24).

In cattle, typical cervical vertebrae are shorter than in horses, and the fossa and head are well defined. In the bifurcated transverse process, its cranioventral part (costal process) is large, lamellar, drawn down, the caudodorsal branch is directed laterally. The spinous processes are rounded, well-defined and directed cranially.

Horses have long vertebrae with a well-defined head, vertebral fossa, and ventral crest. The transverse process is bifurcated along the sagittal plane, both parts of the process are approximately equal in size. There are no spinous processes (scallops in their place).

The upper vertebrae are short, the head and fossa are flat. The costal processes from below are wide, oval-rounded, drawn down, and the caudodorsal plate is directed laterally. There are spinous processes. Very characteristic of the cervical vertebrae of pigs is an additional cranial intervertebral foramen.

In dogs, typical cervical vertebrae are longer than in pigs, but the head and fossa are also flat. The plates of the transverse costal process are almost identical and bifurcate along one sagittal plane (as in a horse). Instead of spinous processes, there are low scallops.

Sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae.

In cattle, on the sixth cervical vertebra, the ventrally strong plate of the costal process is drawn out in a square shape, on the body of the seventh there is a pair of caudal costal facets, the transverse process is not bifurcated. The lamellar spinous process is high. There is no transverse opening, like a horse and a pig.

In horses, the sixth vertebra has three small plates on the transverse process, the seventh is massive, has no transverse foramen, resembles the first thoracic vertebra of a horse in shape, but has only one pair of caudal costal facets and a low spinous process on the body.

Rice. 25. Thoracic vertebrae of cow (I), horse (II), pig (III), dog (IV)

In pigs, the sixth vertebra has a broad, powerful plate of the transverse process of an oval shape drawn ventrally; on the seventh, the intervertebral foramina are double and the spinous process is high, lamellar, set vertically.

In dogs, the sixth vertebra has a wide plate of the costal process beveled from front to back and downwards; on the seventh, the spinous process is set perpendicularly, has a styloid shape, and the caudal costal facets may be absent.

Thoracic vertebrae - vertebrae thoracicae (Fig. 25).

Cattle have 13 vertebrae. In the region of the withers, the spinous processes are wide, lamellar, caudally inclined. Instead of a caudal vertebral notch, there may be an intervertebral foramen. The diaphragmatic vertebra is the 13th with a steep spinous process.

Horses have 18-19 vertebrae. In the region of the withers, the 3rd, 4th and 5th spinous processes have club-shaped thickenings. The articular processes (except for the 1st) have the appearance of small contiguous articular surfaces. The diaphragmatic vertebra is the 15th (sometimes the 14th or 16th).

Pigs have 14-15 vertebrae, maybe 16. The spinous processes are wide, lamellar, vertically set. At the base of the transverse processes, there are lateral foramens that run from top to bottom (dorsoventrally). There are no ventral ridges. Diaphragmatic vertebra - 11th.

Dogs have 13 vertebrae, rarely 12. The spinous processes at the base of the withers are curved and directed caudally. The first spinous process is the highest; on the latter, ventrally from the caudal articular processes, there are accessory and mastoid processes. Diaphragmatic vertebra - 11th.

Lumbar vertebrae - vertebrae lumbales (Fig. 26).

Cattle have 6 vertebrae. They have a long, slightly narrowed body in the middle part. ventral crest. The transverse costal (transverse) processes are dorsally (horizontally) located, long, lamellar, with pointed jagged edges and ends bent to the cranial side. The articular processes are powerful, widely spaced, with strongly concave or convex articular surfaces.

Horses have 6 vertebrae. Their bodies are shorter than in cattle, the transverse costal processes are thickened, especially the last two or three, on which flat articular surfaces are located along the cranial and caudal edges (in old horses they often synostose). The caudal surface of the transverse costal process of the sixth vertebra is articulated with the cranial margin of the sacral wing. Normally, there is never synostosis here. The articular processes are triangular in shape, less powerful, more closely spaced, with flatter articular surfaces.

Rice. 26. Lumbar vertebrae of cow (I), horse (I), pig (III), dog (IV)

Pigs have 7, sometimes 6-8 vertebrae. The bodies are long. The transverse costal processes are horizontally arranged, lamellar, slightly curved, have lateral notches at the base of the caudal margin, and lateral foramina closer to the sacrum. The articular processes, like those of ruminants, are powerful, widely spaced, strongly concave or convex, but, unlike ruminants, they have mastoid processes that make them more massive.

Dogs have 7 vertebrae. The transverse costal processes are lamellar, directed cranioventrally. Articular processes have flat articular, slightly inclined surfaces. The accessory and mastoid (on the cranial) processes are strongly pronounced on the articular processes.

The sacrum - os sacrum (Fig. 27).

In cattle, 5 vertebrae have fused. They have massive quadrangular wings, located almost on a horizontal plane, with a slightly raised cranial margin. The spinous processes are fused, forming a powerful dorsal crest with a thickened edge. The ventral (or pelvic) sacral openings are extensive. Complete synostosis of the vertebral bodies and arches normally occurs by 3-3.5 years.

In horses, 5 fused vertebrae have horizontally arranged triangular wings With two articular surfaces - ear-shaped, dorsal for connection with the wing of the ilium of the pelvis and cranial for connection with the transverse costal process of the sixth lumbar vertebra. The spinous processes grow together only at the base.

Pigs have 4 vertebrae fused. The wings are rounded, set on the sagittal plane, the articular (ear-shaped) surface is on their lateral side. There are no spinous processes. Inter-arc holes are visible between the arcs. Normally, synostosis occurs by 1.5-2 years.

In dogs, 3 vertebrae are fused. The wings are rounded, set, as in a pig, in the sagittal plane with a laterally located articular surface. At the 2nd and 3rd vertebrae, the spinous processes are fused. Synostosis is normal by 6-8 months.

Tail vertebrae - vertebrae caudales s. coccygeae (Fig. 28),

Cattle have 18-20 vertebrae. Long, on the dorsal side of the first vertebrae, rudiments of arches are visible, and on the ventral (on the first 9-10) paired hemal processes, which on the 3rd-5th vertebrae can form hemal arches. "The transverse processes are wide, lamellar, ventrally curved.

Figure 27. The sacral bone of a cow (1), sheep (I), goat (III), horse (IV), pig (V), dog (VI)

Horses have 18-20 vertebrae. They are short, massive, retain arches without spinous processes, only on the first three vertebrae are the transverse processes flat and wide, disappearing on the last vertebrae.

Pigs have 20-23 vertebrae. They are long, arcuate with spinous processes, inclined caudally, preserved on the first five or six vertebrae, which are flatter, then become cylindrical. The transverse processes are wide.

Rice. 28. Tail vertebrae of cow (I), horse (II), pig (III), dog (IV)

Dogs have 20-23 vertebrae. On the first five or six vertebrae, arches, cranial and caudal articular processes are preserved. The transverse processes are large, long, drawn caudoventrally.

Ribs - costae (Fig. 29, 30).

Cattle have 13 pairs of ribs. They have a long neck. The first ribs are the most powerful and the shortest and straightest. Medium lamellar, widening downwards considerably. They have a thinner caudal margin. The posterior ones are more convex, curved, with the head and tubercle of the ribs closer together. The last rib is short, thinning downwards, and may be hanging. It is palpable in the upper third of the costal arch.

Synostosis of the head and tubercle of the rib with the body in young animals does not occur simultaneously and goes from front to back. The head and tubercle of the first rib are the first to fuse with the body. The articular surface of the tubercle is saddle-shaped. The sternal ends of the ribs (from the 2nd to the 10th) have articular surfaces for connection with the costal cartilages, which have articular surfaces at both ends. Sternal ribs 8 pairs.

Horses have 18-19 pairs of ribs. Most of them are of uniform size along the entire length, the first ventrally is significantly expanded, up to the tenth the curvature and length of the ribs increase, then begin to decrease. The widest and lamellar first 6-7 ribs. Unlike ruminants, their caudal margins are thicker and their necks are shorter. The tenth rib is almost four-sided. Sternal ribs 8 pairs.

Pigs often have 14, maybe 12 and up to 17 pairs of ribs. They are narrow, from the first to the third or fourth, the width increases slightly. They have articular surfaces for connection with costal cartilage. In adults, the sternal ends are narrowed; in piglets, they are slightly expanded. Rib tubercles have small flat statutory facets, rib bodies have an indistinct spiral turn. Sternal ribs 7 (6 or 8) pairs.

Dogs have 13 pairs of ribs. They are arched, especially in the middle part. Their length increases to the seventh rib, width - to the third or fourth, and curvature - to the eighth rib. Facet ribs on tubercles convex, sternal ribs 9 pairs.

Breast bone - sternum (Fig. 31).

In cattle, it is powerful, flat. The handle is rounded, raised, does not protrude beyond the first ribs, is connected to the body by a joint. The body expands caudally. On the xiphoid process there is a significant plate of xiphoid cartilage. Along the edges of 7 pairs of articular costal fossae.

In horses, it is laterally compressed. It has a significant cartilaginous addition on the ventral edge, forming a ventral ridge, which protrudes on the handle, rounding off, and is called a falcon. In adult animals, the handle fuses with the body. Cartilage without xiphoid process. Along the dorsal edge of the sternum there are 8 pairs of articular costal fossae.

Rice. 29. Cow ribs (I), horse (II)

Rice. 30. Vertebral end of horse ribs

Rice. 31. Breast bone of a cow (I). sheep (II), goats (III), horses (IV), pigs (V), dogs (VI)

In pigs, as in cattle, it is flat, connected to the handle by a joint. The handle, unlike ruminants, in the form of a rounded wedge protrudes ahead of the first pairs of ribs. The xiphoid cartilage is elongated. On the sides b (7-8) pairs of articular costal fossae.

In dogs, it is in the form of a round, well-shaped stick. The handle protrudes in front of the first ribs with a small tubercle. The xiphoid cartilage is rounded, on the sides there are 9 pairs of articular costal fossae.

Thorax - thorax.

In cattle, it is very voluminous, laterally compressed in the anterior part, has a triangular exit. Behind the shoulder blades it greatly expands caudally.

In horses, it is in the form of a cone, long, slightly compressed from the sides, especially in the area of ​​​​attachment of the shoulder girdle.

In pigs, it is long, laterally compressed, height and width vary in different breeds.

In dogs of a cone-shaped shape with steep sides, the inlet is rounded, the intercostal spaces - spatia intercostalia are large and wide.

Questions for self-examination

1. What is the significance of the apparatus of movement in the life of the organism?

2. What functions does the skeleton perform in the body in mammals and birds?

3. What stages of development in phylo- and ontogenesis does the internal and external skeleton of vertebrates go through?

4. What changes occur in the bones with an increase in static load (with limited motor activity)?

5. How is a bone built as an organ and what are the differences in its structure in young growing organisms?

6. What departments is the vertebral column divided into in terrestrial vertebrates and how many vertebrae are in each department in mammals?

7. In which part of the axial skeleton is there a complete bone segment?

8. What are the main parts of the vertebra and what parts are located on each part?

9. In what parts of the spinal column did the vertebrae undergo reduction?

10. By what signs will you distinguish the vertebrae of each department of the spinal column and by what signs will you determine the specific features of the vertebrae of each department?

11. What are the characteristic features of the structure of the atlas and axial vertebra (epistrophy) in domestic animals? What is the difference between the atlas of pigs and the axial vertebra of ruminants?

12. By what sign can the thoracic vertebrae be distinguished from the rest of the vertebrae of the spinal column?

13. By what signs can the sacrum of cattle, horses, pigs and dogs be distinguished?

14. What are the main features of the structure of a typical cervical vertebra in ruminants, pigs / horses and dogs.

15. What is the most characteristic feature of the lumbar vertebrae? How do they differ in ruminants, pigs, horses and dogs?

What are the functions of the musculoskeletal system?

The musculoskeletal system performs the functions of support, maintaining a certain shape, protecting organs from damage, and movement.

Why does the body need a musculoskeletal system?

The musculoskeletal system is necessary for the body to sustain life. It is responsible for keeping fit and protecting the body. The most important role of the musculoskeletal system is movement. Movement helps the body in choosing habitats, searching for food and shelter. All functions of this system are vital for living organisms.

Questions

1. What underlies the evolutionary changes in the musculoskeletal system?

Changes in the musculoskeletal system had to fully ensure all the evolutionary changes in the body. Evolution has changed the appearance of animals. In order to survive, it was necessary to actively search for food, better hide or defend against enemies, and move faster.

2. What animals have an external skeleton?

The external skeleton is characteristic of arthropods.

3. Which vertebrates do not have a bone skeleton?

The lancelet and cartilaginous fish do not have a bone skeleton.

4. What does the similar plan of the structure of the skeletons of different vertebrates indicate?

A similar plan of the structure of the skeletons of different vertebrates speaks of the unity of the origin of living organisms and confirms the evolutionary theory.

5. What conclusion can be drawn, having become acquainted with the general functions of the musculoskeletal system in all animal organisms?

The musculoskeletal system in all animal organisms performs three main functions - supporting, protective, motor.

6. What changes in the structure of protozoa led to an increase in the speed of their movement?

The first supporting structure of animals - the cell membrane allowed the body to increase the speed of movement due to flagella and cilia (outgrowths on the shell)

Tasks

Prove that the complication of the skeleton of amphibians is associated with a change in the habitat.

The skeleton of amphibians, like other vertebrates, consists of the following sections: the skeleton of the head, trunk, limb belts and free limbs. Amphibians have significantly fewer bones compared to fish: many bones fuse together, cartilage is preserved in some places. The skeleton is lighter than that of fish, which is important for terrestrial existence. Broad flat skull and upper jaws constitute a single entity. The lower jaw is very mobile. The skull is movably attached to the spine, which plays an important role in terrestrial food production. There are more sections in the spine of amphibians than those of fish. It consists of the cervical (one vertebra), trunk (seven vertebrae), sacral (one vertebra) and tail sections. The tail section of a frog consists of one tail bone, while in tailed amphibians it consists of separate vertebrae. The skeleton of the free limbs of amphibians, unlike fish, is complex. The skeleton of the forelimb consists of the shoulder, forearm, wrist, metacarpus and phalanges of the fingers; hind limb - thigh, lower leg, tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges of fingers. The complex structure of the limbs allows amphibians to move both in the aquatic and in the terrestrial environment.

Skeleton - the skeleton of domestic animals includes two sections (Fig. 15): axial and limbs (peripheral).
The axial skeleton in domestic animals is represented by metamerically arranged vertebrae that form the spinal column, the thorax, and the skull. Its bones are secondary and develop due to the elements of the internal skeleton. Only the integumentary bones of the skull and the clavicle develop at the expense of the elements of the external skeleton - the primary bones.
Along the body of the animal, along the median plane, there is a spine, in which two parts are distinguished: the spinal column - columna vertebralis, formed by the bodies of the vertebrae, - the supporting part, connecting the work of the limbs in the form of a kinematic arc, and the spinal canal - canalis vertebralis, which is formed by the arches of the vertebrae surrounding the spinal cord.

With the appearance in terrestrial animals of limbs fixed on the axial skeleton, the spine is differentiated into sections that coincide with the direction of action of the forces of gravity of the body of tetrapods. In those places where the limb belts are attached to it, the thoracic and sacral sections stand out, the lumbar section remains between them: The cervical section forms in front of the thoracic and the tail section behind the sacral (Fig. 16). So the spine was divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal sections, in which the vertebrae acquired some differences related to their function. The thoracic region, together with the lumbar, is also distinguished as the skeleton of the body.
Ribs - costae are preserved in higher vertebrates completely only in the thoracic region, forming a complete bone segment where the ribs are connected to the sternum with the help of costal cartilages, or incomplete, formed only by the thoracic vertebrae, bone ribs and costal cartilages. In other sections, the ribs remain in the form of rudiments fused with the transverse processes.
With the development of the limbs in terrestrial vertebrates, the sternum (breast bone) appears in the thoracic region, on which the lower ends of the costal cartilages rest.
The number of vertebrae in the thoracic region is from 12 to 19, in the caudal region - from 12 to 24. In mammals, there are 7 vertebrae in the cervical region, and 6 or 7 in the lumbar region, and less in the sacral region - only 3-5 (Table 3).

Question 1.
Skeleton performs the following functions:
1) supporting - for all other systems and organs;
2) motor - provides movement of the body and its parts in space;
3) protective - protects the organs of the chest and abdominal cavity, brain, nerves, blood vessels from external influences.

Question 2.
Distinguish two types of skeleton- external and internal. Some protozoa, many mollusks, arthropods have an external skeleton - these are the shells of snails, mussels, oysters, hard shells of crayfish, crabs, light but strong chitinous coatings of insects. Invertebrate radiolarians, cephalopods, and vertebrates have an internal skeleton.

Question 3.
The body of mollusks is usually enclosed in a shell. The shell may consist of two flaps or be of a different shape in the form of a cap, curl, spiral, etc. The shell is formed by two layers - the outer, organic, and the inner - of calcium carbonate. The calcareous layer is subdivided into two layers: behind the organic layer there is a porcelain-like layer formed by prismatic crystals of calcium carbonate, and under it is a mother-of-pearl layer, the crystals of which are in the form of thin plates on which light interferes.
The shell is an outer hard skeleton.

Question 4.
The body and limbs of insects have a chitinous cover - the cuticle, which is the outer skeleton. The cuticle of many insects is equipped with a large number of hairs that perform the function of touch.

Question 5.
Protozoa can form external skeletons in the form of shells or shells (foraminifera, radiolarians, armored flagellate), as well as internal skeletons of various shapes. The main function of the protozoan skeleton is protective.

Question 6.
The presence of hard covers in arthropods prevents the continuous growth of animals. Therefore, the growth and development of arthropods are accompanied by periodic molts. The old cuticle is shed, and until the new one hardens, the animal grows.

Question 7.
Vertebrates have an internal skeleton, the main axial element of which is the notochord. In vertebrates, the internal skeleton consists of three sections - the skeleton of the head, the skeleton of the body and the skeleton of the limbs. Vertebrates (amphibian fish, reptiles, birds, mammals) have an internal skeleton.

Question 8.
Plants then they also have support structures with which they carry the leaves to the sun and maintain them in such a position that the leaf blades are illuminated as best as possible by sunlight. In woody plants, mechanical tissue serves as the main support. There are three types of mechanical tissues:
1) collenchyma is formed from living cells of various shapes. They are found in young plant stems and leaves;
2) the fibers are represented by dead elongated cells with evenly thickened membranes. Fibers are part of wood and bast. Flax is an example of non-lignified bast fibers;
3) stony cells have an irregular shape and strongly thickened lignified shells. These cells form the shell of nuts, the pits of drupes, and so on. Stony cells are found in the pulp of pear and quince fruits.
In combination with other tissues, mechanical tissue forms a kind of "skeleton" of the plant, especially developed in the stem. Here it often forms a kind of cylinder passing inside the stem, or is located along it in separate strands, providing the bending strength of the stem. At the root, on the contrary, the mechanical tissue is concentrated in the center, increasing the resistance of the root to tear. Wood also plays a mechanical role, even after the death of wood cells continue to perform a supporting function.

Vertebral column: structure, development, specific features

In its development, the spinal column (columna vertebralis) is formed around the spinal cord, forming a bone container for it. In addition to protecting the spinal cord, the spinal column performs other important functions in the body: it is a support for the organs and tissues of the body, supports the head, participates in the formation of the walls of the chest, abdominal cavity and pelvis.

vertebral column(columna vertebralis) consists of separate elements - vertebrae (vertebra). Each vertebra has: a body (corpus vertebrae), a head (caput vertebrae), a fossa (fossa vertebrae), a ventral crest (crista ventralis), an arch (arcus vertebrae), and a vertebral opening (foramen vertebrae) is formed between the arch and the body. All the openings of the vertebrae together form the spinal canal (canalis vertebralis) for the spinal cord, and the caudal and cranial vertebral notches (incisures caudalis et cranialis) form the intervertebral foramen (foramen intervertebrale) for the nerves and blood vessels. The cranial and caudal articular processes (processus articularis cranialis et caudalis) protrude along the edges of the arches, which serve to articulate the vertebrae with each other. The spinous process (processus spinosus) protrudes - fixing muscles and ligaments.

The vertebral column is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal regions. The transverse processes (processus transversus) in the thoracic region are needed for the articulation of the vertebrae with the ribs, and the transverse costal, mastoid and spinous processes (processus costo-transversarium, mamillaris, spinosus) are needed for muscle attachment.

The number of vertebrae in each department is different and depends on the species characteristics of the animals. So, in the cervical region, most mammals (except for the sloth and manatee) have 7 vertebrae. They are divided into: 1st - atlas, 2nd - epistrophy, 3rd, 4th, 5th - typical, 6th, 7th.

· 1st(atlas - atlas), consists of two arches (arcus dorsalis et ventralis), on them, respectively, tubercles (tuberculum dorsale et ventrale). The transverse processes form the wings of the atlas (ala atlantis). Under the wing there is an atlas fossa (fossa atlantis), on the wings there are two pairs of holes for blood vessels and nerves - the wing (foramen alare) and the intervertebral (foramen intervertebrale), there are cranial and caudal articular fossae (fovea articularis cranialis et caudalis). FEATURES: there are no transverse holes on the atlas of the domestic bull.

· 2nd(axial epistrophy - axis), characterized by the presence of a tooth (dens) instead of the head of the vertebra and a ridge (crista dorsalis) instead of the spinous process, also the transverse process (processus transversus) is single.

· 3rd, 4th, 5th- typical. - their transverse processes fused with the costal, forming - transverse costal (processus costo-transversarium), and the spinous processes are tilted towards the head.

· 6th and 7th vertebrae - differ from the rest in shape and are atypical. 6th - instead of a ventral crest, it has a massive ventral plate (lamina ventralis). 7th - does not have a transverse opening, but has caudal costal fossae (fovea costalis caudalis) on the vertebral body.

In the thoracic spine of cattle and dogs, 13 vertebrae each, in pigs 14-17, in horses 18. The thoracic vertebrae (vertebrae thoracicae), together with the ribs and sternum, form the chest. The vertebrae of this department have caudal and cranial costal fossae (fovea costalis caudalis et cranialis), costal facets on the transverse processes (fovea costalis processus transversalis). The spinous process (processus spinosus) is tilted back towards the tail. The spinous processes of the 2nd to 9th vertebrae form the basis of the withers (regio interscapularis). The spinous process of the 13th (12th in a pig, 16th in a horse, and 11th in a dog) vertebra stands vertically - diaphragmatic. On the transverse processes (processus transversus) are mastoid processes (processus mamillaris).

IN lumbar of the spine in cattle and horses, 6 vertebrae each, in pigs and dogs, 7 each. Lumbar vertebrae (vertebrae lumbales), characterized by the presence of long, flat transverse processes and well-developed articular processes. (In a domestic bull:) vertebral bodies with a waist-shaped interception, transverse processes with sharp, uneven edges and bent forward towards the head. The spinous processes stand vertically. The cranial articular processes form semi-cylindrical bushings, and the caudal processes form the same blocks.

IN sacral region The vertebrae of the spine (vertebrae sacrales) fuse into one bone - the sacrum (os sacrum), which consists of 5 vertebrae in cattle and horses, 4 in pigs, and 3 in dogs.

The spinous processes have merged into the medial sacral crest (crista sacralis mediana), there are no interannual foramen. Intervertebral notches formed 4 pairs of dorsal and ventral sacral foramina (foramina sacralia dorsalia et ventralia). The transverse processes have merged - jagged lateral parts (partes lateralis). The first two transverse processes formed the wings of the sacrum (ala sacralis). On the wings dorsally there is an ear-shaped cover (facies auricularis), the ventral cover is pelvic (facies pelvina). On the vent. Transverse lines (lineae transversae) are visible again, a vascular trough passes here. The head ventrally forms a sacral promontory (promontorium). There is also a sacral canal (canalis sacralis).

The tail section of the spine is the most variable in terms of the number of vertebrae, which are 20-23 in dogs, 20-25 in pigs, 18-20 in cattle, and 18-20 in horses. In the structure of the caudal vertebrae (vertebrae caudales (coccygeae)) there is a gradual reduction of the arc. On the ventral side, from the 2nd to the 13th, hemal processes (processus hemalis) are well developed.