For us now, a physical vacuum is what remains in space when all the air and every last elementary particle are removed from it. The result is not emptiness, but a kind of matter - the Progenitor of everything in the Universe, giving birth to elementary particles, from which atoms and molecules are then formed.
A. E. Akimov (11, p. 24)
Since the concept of vacuum includes an all-penetrating medium located between particles, the vacuum occupies the entire interparticle space; therefore, this medium can be defined as a particleless form of matter, the density of which changes in accordance with the forces acting on the vacuum. The density of vacuum has a very small value compared to the density of a substance that is familiar to us: for example, the density of the vacuum located between gas molecules at a pressure of one atmosphere is 10 -15 g/cm 3, and the density of distilled water under the same conditions is 1 g /cm 3 (20, p. 60).
Gravity, inherent in any mass, is also inherent in vacuum mass. Based on this postulate, the force of interaction of a body with any part of the vacuum will be determined by the law of universal gravitation. That is, bodies attract vacuum to themselves, just as the Earth attracts bodies on it. Therefore, when any body moves, the vacuum surrounding it will move (entrain) along with it. Of course, this drag will only occur if this vacuum is not acted upon by a large force (from the gravitational influence of other bodies), which keeps the vacuum from this drag. However, the vacuum is not simply carried along with a moving body, but “plays the role of a true controller of any movement. In a figurative representation, the vacuum, like a bulldog, clings to any macro-object with the greater force, the more massive its victim is. Having grabbed it, it never lets go, accompanying on all journeys through outer space. Physically, this means that the vacuum and the object controlled by it represent a closed system” (21, p. 27).
The unique experiments of Fizeau and Michelson showed that in nature there is no absolutely motionless vacuum. Vacuum, having mass, is always entrained by the body whose gravitational forces predominate. In these experiments, such a body is the Earth, which entrains the near-Earth vacuum (in Michelson’s experiment) and does not allow a body moving on the Earth to entrain the vacuum located between the particles of the body (in Fizeau’s experiment) .
In the modern interpretation, the physical vacuum appears to be a complex quantum dynamic object that manifests itself through fluctuations. Physical vacuum is considered as a material medium, isotropically (uniformly) filling all space (both free space and matter), having a quantum structure that is unobservable in an unperturbed state (33. p. 4).
For a better understanding of the physical vacuum, it was considered appropriate to consider it as the electron-positron Dirac model in its slightly modified interpretation.
Let us imagine a physical vacuum as a material medium consisting of elements formed by pairs of particles and antiparticles (according to Dirac - an electron-positron pair).
If a particle and an antiparticle are placed inside each other, then such a system will be truly electrically neutral. And since both particles have spin, the “particle-antiparticle” system should represent a pair of particles embedded in each other with oppositely directed spins. Due to true electrical neutrality and opposite spins, such a system will not have a magnetic moment (33, p. 5). A system of particles and antiparticles in the form indicated above, which has the indicated properties, is called a phyton. A dense packing of phytons forms a medium called a physical vacuum. However, it should be remembered that this model is very simplified, and it would be naive to see the true structure of the physical vacuum in the constructed model. (Fig. 1, a, b).
Let us consider the most practically important cases of disturbance of the physical vacuum by various external sources (86. p. 940).
1. Let the source of disturbance be charge q (Fig. 1, c). The action of the charge will be expressed in the charge polarization of the physical vacuum, and this state manifests itself as an electromagnetic field (E-field). This is precisely what Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences Ya. B. Zeldovich pointed out earlier in his works.
2. Let the source of disturbance be mass m (Fig. 1, d). Perturbation of the physical vacuum with mass m will be expressed in symmetrical oscillations of the elements of phytons along the axis to the center of the object of disturbance, as is conventionally depicted in the figure. This state of physical vacuum is characterized as spin longitudinal polarization and is interpreted as a gravitational field (G-field). This idea was expressed by A.D. Sakharov (87, p. 70). In his opinion, gravity is not a separate active force at all, but arises as a result of changes in the quantum fluctuation energy of the vacuum when there is any matter, just as it happened with the formation of forces in the experiment of G. Casimir. A.D. Sakharov believed that the presence of matter in a sea of particles with absolutely zero energy causes the appearance of unbalanced forces moving matter, called gravity (86, p. 940).
3. Let the source of disturbance be the classical spin (Fig. 1, e). Phyton spins that coincide with the orientation of the source spin retain their orientation. The spins of the phytons, which are opposite to the spin of the source, experience an inversion under the influence of this source. As a result, the physical vacuum will transform into a state of transverse spin polarization. This state is interpreted as a spin field (S-field), that is, a field generated by classical spin. Such a field is also called a torsion field (31, p. 31).
In accordance with the above, we can assume that a single medium - a physical vacuum - can be in different polarization states, EQS states. Moreover, physical vacuum in a phase state corresponding to the electromagnetic field is usually considered as a superfluid liquid. In the phase state of spin polarization, the physical vacuum behaves like a solid body.
These considerations reconcile two mutually exclusive points of view - the point of view of the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, when the ether was considered a solid, and the idea of modern physics about the physical vacuum as a superfluid liquid. Both points of view are correct, but each for its own phase state (33, p. 13).
RICE. 1 Diagram of polarization states of physical vacuum
All three fields: gravitational, electromagnetic and spin are universal. These fields manifest themselves at both micro and macro levels. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences Ya. I. Pomeranchuk; All physics is the physics of vacuum,” or EAN academician G.I. Naan: “Vacuum is everything, and everything is vacuum” (63, p. 14).
As a result of familiarization with the theory of physical vacuum, it becomes clear that modern nature does not need “unifications.” In nature there is only a physical vacuum and its polarization states, and “unifications” only reflect the degree of our understanding of the interrelation of fields (31, p. 32).
One more extremely important fact should be noted regarding the physical vacuum as a source of energy.
The traditional point of view boiled down to the statement that since the physical vacuum is a system with minimal energy, no energy can be extracted from such a system. At the same time, however, it was not taken into account that the physical vacuum is a dynamic system with intense fluctuations, which can be a source of energy. The possibility of effective interaction of spinning (rotating) objects with the physical vacuum allows us to consider the possibility of creating torsion energy sources from a new perspective.
According to J. Wheeler, the Planck energy density of the physical vacuum is 10 95 g/cm 3, while the energy density of nuclear matter is 10 14 g/cm 3. Other estimates of the energy of vacuum fluctuations are also known, but all of them are significantly larger than the estimate of J. Wheeler (31, p. 34). Therefore, the following promising conclusions can be drawn:
The energy of vacuum fluctuations is very high compared to any other type of energy;
Through torsion disturbances it is possible to release the energy of vacuum fluctuations.
Russian scientists believe that hidden matter and hidden energy are “hidden” in the physical vacuum, equal to almost half of those realized in the form of the Universe (113, p. 7).
Now that we have found out that instead of potential energy, the energy of the gravitational field works, and instead of kinetic energy, there is the energy of a physical vacuum, it is time to understand these concepts: vacuum and field. It is also necessary to understand exactly how vacuum and field interact with matter. Because only after clarifying the main features of the interaction of these three substances with each other can we hope that we will be able to develop industrial technologies for free energy. Let's start with the vacuum.
In science, the word “vacuum” means two completely different things. And in order not to get confused in concepts, one or another adjective is often added. Technical vacuum is the absence of air or its reduced pressure. The physical vacuum is a kind of foundation on which the Universe rests and evolves. In this article, “vacuum” will always mean the second concept, although the addition “physical” may often be omitted. It is in principle impossible to give an absolutely precise and comprehensive concept of physical vacuum, because physical vacuum is a kind of analogue of matter. But you can try to define this substance through its properties. I do it this way: physical vacuum is a special medium that forms the space of the Universe, has enormous energy, is involved in all processes and the visible manifestation of which is our material world, but it is not visible to us due to the lack of the necessary sense organs and therefore appears to us emptiness. Those physicists who study quantum mechanics and elementary particles have no doubts about the reality of the physical vacuum, since its existence is confirmed by such well-known phenomena as the Casimir effect, the Lamb effect, the decrease in the effective charge of a fast moving electron, the quantum evaporation of black holes, etc. d. It is officially believed that physical vacuum has the minimum possible energy, therefore it is impossible to extract energy from it and convert it into useful work. However, this does not take into account that in a physical vacuum there are always fluctuations, the energy of which turns out to be much higher than the average level. Thanks to these fluctuations, we can turn the vacuum into a source of unlimited energy. It is also officially believed that the physical vacuum manifests itself only at the level of the microcosm, and at the level of the macrocosm it cannot manifest itself. However, the Casimir effect and the evaporation of black holes predicted by Stephen Hawking indicate the opposite.
My opinion on this matter is the following: all theoretical disputes about the forms and possibilities of manifestation of physical vacuum should be postponed until the future, when we understand these issues much better, and today it is necessary to proceed only from the facts. The facts show that it is possible to extract energy from a vacuum (see the previous article “Paradoxes of Energy”). But if you continue to maintain the official position about the impossibility of extracting energy, then to explain the energy paradoxes presented in the previous article, you will have to violate the law of conservation of energy. It turns out that the physical vacuum works at all conceivable levels: the micro level (elementary particles), the macro level (our hardware and devices) and the mega level (planets, stars, galaxies).
Unfortunately, the idea of a physical vacuum is used mainly in quantum mechanics and the theory of elementary particles, and also a little in astrophysics, but in other branches of physics it is almost unknown. For this reason, many physical phenomena remain unexplained or are explained completely incorrectly. For example, inertia. What inertia is is still not clear. And we will not find a definition of this phenomenon in any reference book or physics textbook. Moreover, the existence of inertia conflicts with the third law of mechanics (action is equal to reaction). According to this law, when an object acts on another with some force, a new force always arises, directed in the opposite direction from the second object to the first: the force of gravity of an object lying on the base and the oppositely directed reaction force of the base, the force of attraction of the electron to the source of the electromagnetic field and the oppositely directed force of attraction of the field to the electron, etc. But for inertia such a counterforce does not exist. When the bus brakes sharply, an inertial force arises and under its influence we fall forward, but no counterforce can be found. For this reason, sometimes they try to declare inertial forces illusory, fictitious. However, if a supporter of this point of view gets a big bump on his head in a bus that suddenly brakes, how illusory and fictitious will this bump be?
If we assume that inertia is the resistance of the physical vacuum, all contradictions and ambiguities disappear. A good analogy can be offered between the inertia and resistance of a ship in water. When a ship cuts through the water environment, it deforms it and forces individual volumes of water to move to the side, that is, it applies a very specific force to these volumes. As a result, a counterforce arises that seeks to stop the ship in order to prevent any deformation of the water environment. We observe this counterforce in the form of friction. In this case, it does not matter exactly how the ship moves - accelerated, uniformly, slowly - but the volume of water thrown to the side always moves at an accelerated pace, therefore work on it is always carried out and the resistance force always arises in full accordance with the laws of mechanics.
A very similar picture arises with inertia. When we sit in a car and press the gas pedal, we move quickly and deform the physical vacuum with our uneven movement. And in response, he creates counterforces in the form of inertia, which pull us back in order to stop us and thereby eliminate the deformation introduced into the vacuum. To overcome vacuum resistance, significant work has to be done, which manifests itself in increased fuel consumption. The subsequent uniform movement does not deform the physical vacuum and it does not provide resistance, so fuel consumption is noticeably lower. Braking the car again deforms the vacuum and it again creates resistance forces in the form of inertia, which pull us forward in order to leave us in a state of uniform rectilinear motion and thereby prevent the appearance of a new deformation. But this time it is no longer we who are doing work on the vacuum, but it is above us and gives us its energy, which is released in the form of heat in the brake pads of the car.
However, there are differences between the resistance of a ship in water and the appearance of inertia in an accelerating car. Water cannot pass through the hull of a ship and therefore it is always thrown aside by the ship. Consequently, friction of a ship in water also always exists. But the physical vacuum is not thrown aside by the car body, but passes freely through it, so it can interact with the contents of the car only when it moves unevenly.
Such accelerated-uniformly-decelerated motion of a car is nothing more than a single cycle of oscillatory motion of large amplitude and low frequency. At the stage of acceleration of an object, work is performed on the vacuum and some energy E1 is transferred to it. At the deceleration stage, the vacuum already does work on the object and gives it energy E2. Are these energies the same? If the vacuum does not have its own energy, then they are the same. But since it has its own enormous potential, the given energy E2 may turn out to be greater than the received energy E1. How much more depends on the conditions of acceleration and braking. By choosing the right conditions, we can ensure that the second energy is much greater than the first. And then we get the opportunity to build a real perpetual motion machine of the 2nd kind using vacuum energy. In the article “Paradoxes of Energy” I wrote about this, giving examples of the collision of a blank with a target.
The circular movement is also uneven. Although the numerical value of the speed during such a movement may not change, the position of the speed vector in space is constantly changing. For this reason, the rotational movement of an object also deforms the physical vacuum, and it responds to this by creating a centrifugal force, which is always directed so as to straighten the trajectory of rotation and make it straight, in which case any deformation disappears. According to the third law of mechanics, not only the physical vacuum acts on a rotating object with centrifugal force, but also the object acts on the vacuum with centripetal force. Under the influence of centripetal forces, the vacuum rushes from the periphery of the object to its axis of rotation, here the individual flows collide with each other, turn 90 degrees (they turn for the same reason why two colliding water jets turn) and fly out along the axis of rotation on both sides. But if the object rotates uniformly, without changing its speed, then these vacuum flows escaping from it also move almost uniformly. And therefore they practically do not interact with material objects. Although, due to the presence of the surrounding vacuum environment, these flows are slightly slowed down and therefore some interaction still occurs, but it is so weak that it can only be detected by ultra-sensitive instruments. For example, with the help of the so-called Lebedev turntable, which is a light turbine with blades, one side of which is made of a mirror, and the other is painted black.
In the past, physical vacuum was called ether. The ether was believed to be responsible for the propagation of light waves. However, no matter how hard the American physicists Michelson and Morley tried to detect the presence of ether in their experiments, they were not successful. Based on the negative result of this experiment, scientists of that time declared the ether non-existent, and Albert Einstein created his special theory of relativity (STR). But when ten years later he began to create the general theory of relativity (GR), he again started talking about the ether. However, the genie was already out of the bottle and the general opinion about the absence of ether remained unshaken.
However, there were heretics from science who did not agree with the general opinion and continued to consider the ether to really exist. One of them was the famous physicist and engineer Nikola Tesla. In all his constructions and hypotheses, he proceeded from the idea of ether. This explains his incredible successes, many of which even today no one can repeat. Another heretic was the English physicist Paul Dirac, who mathematically substantiated the idea of a certain all-pervasive medium responsible for the birth of elementary particles, and the existence of which followed with iron necessity from certain effects of quantum physics. For which he was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize and ceased to be considered a heretic. But since the old name “ether” was compromised, a new name had to be found. This is how the concept of physical vacuum appeared. If today you ask a scientist who is fully in official positions about ether and physical vacuum, he will answer that there is no ether, but physical vacuum exists.
But let us pay attention to this thing: in the most general sense, ether and physical vacuum are one and the same. Really, what is ether? This is a kind of all-pervasive medium that is responsible for the propagation of light waves. What is a physical vacuum? This is a kind of all-pervasive medium that is responsible for the birth of elementary particles. In both cases, the most common thing in these definitions is the postulation of an all-pervasive environment. And the propagation of light and the birth of elementary particles are already properties of a given medium. It is unlikely that there are two completely different pervasive environments with different properties. To me, this is tantamount to saying that there are two completely different varieties of iron, one of which is responsible only for thermal conductivity properties, and the other only for elastic properties. It seems more likely that this all-pervasive medium is responsible for the transfer of light rays, the birth of elementary particles, and much more.
But why did Michelson and Morley fail in their attempts to capture the ether? The answer turns out to be elementary simple. Because, in full accordance with the laws of physics, the ether only interacts with material objects and therefore can be detected (more precisely, not with the objects themselves, but with the fields they create) when its movement relative to the objects is uneven. But with uniform motion or its absence, no interaction occurs and the physical vacuum turns out to be fundamentally unobservable. In the Michelson-Morley experiment, the measuring setup was at rest relative to the planet. And the ether or physical vacuum, having a certain mass and gravity, is attracted to the Earth and creates a shell of increased density around it, which moves in space along with the planet as a single whole. That is, this shell also turns out to be motionless relative to the planet. In other words, the ether and the measuring installation of American physicists were motionless relative to each other. Naturally, they failed in their attempts.
In order to detect the presence of ether, it is necessary either to make the ether itself move unevenly relative to the measuring installation, or to move the installation unevenly relative to the stationary ether. And such an experiment was carried out by the French physicist Sagnac in 1912. His installation consisted of four mirrors installed in the corners of a regular square, and the entire structure rotated at a certain speed v. It was assumed that for a ray of light moving in the direction of rotation, the speed would be c = c0+v, and for a ray flying in the opposite direction, it would be equal to c = c0-v. And these rays, when added, will draw the desired interference pattern. Sagnac always received a consistently positive result. If this experiment had been carried out before Michelson and Morley began their experiments, it could have served as brilliant evidence in favor of the existence of the ether. But it was carried out much later, when physicists for the most part believed that ether does not exist. Therefore, Sagnac did not find recognition among physicists. And two years later, world war broke out and public attention switched to other problems. As a result, Sagnac's results were simply forgotten.
What is the internal structure of the ether-physical vacuum, what does it consist of? Even before the Second World War, physicists performed such an experiment. They passed gamma rays through a thin lead target and measured the scattering of the quanta on lead atoms. In most cases, gamma radiation was deflected by atoms to the sides, but sometimes physicists recorded an electron + positron pair leaving the target. The presence of an electron could be explained by its being knocked out of the lead atom. But where did the positron come from, since it is not found in atoms? This effect was then explained through the conversion of gamma radiation into a particle-antiparticle pair. Today we can give another, more correct explanation: due to the high density of lead (and therefore the increased intensity of the target’s own gravitational field), the physical vacuum is contracted inside the target and here its density becomes higher than in the surrounding space, and therefore the probability of gamma-ray interaction increases. radiation with vacuum quanta. Interacting with the vacuum, gamma radiation breaks its quanta into fragments, which we perceive in the form of particles and antiparticles. Therefore, we can say this: we do not know exactly what physical vacuum or ether consists of, but purely conditionally we can imagine its structure as particles and antiparticles embedded in each other. And from such an idea there is only one step left to setting up a simple experiment to detect the ether and building a generator that extracts energy from the ether.
It may turn out that the phenomenon of “dark matter”, which astrophysicists are arguing about today, is also due to the ether-physical vacuum. At least, purely theoretically, it turns out that a similar effect should take place. When the ether-physical vacuum is pulled towards a cosmic object by its gravity, here it forms a shell of increased density, and away from the object the density of the physical vacuum becomes somewhat less. What happens is what I call the emergence of vacuum megafluctuations. As a consequence, distant objects (planets around the Sun or galactic arms around the galactic center) begin to be attracted to the central object not only by its own gravity, but also by the gravity of the created megafluctuation. Outwardly, this will manifest itself as the appearance of additional invisible mass. And in the solar system, a similar effect seems to be at work. I mean the abnormally high deceleration of the American spacecraft Pioneer and Voyager, which, starting from crossing the orbit of Neptune, suddenly began to decelerate noticeably more than was allowed by calculations. If such braking is due to fuel leaks or other purely technical reasons, then braking would be different for different devices. But it is the same for everyone. Consequently, it is due to some external cause not related to the apparatus itself. If the ethereal megafluctuation of the Sun ends at the level of Neptune’s orbit, then, having gone beyond its limits, American spacecraft began to be attracted to the Sun not only by its mass, but also by the mass of this megafluctuation.
We have very little left to figure out what a gravitational field is? My hypothesis is this: any field is one or another type of physical vacuum deformation. If the physical vacuum consists of some quanta (particle + antiparticle nested within each other), then it is quite likely that these quanta are then connected into threads that make up space. And any thread can be deformed in four different ways: 1) the thread can be stretched, creating longitudinal deformation; 2) the thread can be bent, creating transverse deformation; 3) the thread can be twisted, creating torsional deformation; 4) you can change the relative position of the component quanta without changing the position of the thread as a whole. The transverse deformation must correspond to an electromagnetic field (remember that electromagnetic radiation is a wave that oscillates in a direction transverse to the velocity vector). The torsional deformation should correspond to a new, so-called torsion field, around which heated battles have been going on lately. And then the longitudinal deformation must correspond to the gravitational field. And the fourth type of deformation should correspond to resonant vibrations. If I am correct in my assumptions, then there are four main ways of extracting energy from the physical vacuum, corresponding to the four main types of deformation through three fields and resonance. I will write about all these methods in a separate article.
The fundamental element in the study of the vast majority of natural sciences is matter. In this article we will look at matter, its forms of movement and properties.
What is matter?
Over the course of many centuries, the concept of matter has changed and improved. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato saw it as the substratum of things, which opposes their idea. Aristotle said that this is something eternal that can neither be created nor destroyed. Later, the philosophers Democritus and Leucippus gave a definition of matter as a certain fundamental substance from which all bodies in our world and in the Universe are composed.
The modern concept of matter was given by V.I. Lenin, according to which it is an independent and independent objective category, expressed by human perception, sensations, it can also be copied and photographed.
Attributes of matter
The main characteristics of matter are three:
- Space.
- Time.
- Movement.
The first two differ in metrological properties, that is, they can be quantitatively measured with special instruments. Space is measured in meters and its derivatives, and time is measured in hours, minutes, seconds, as well as in days, months, years, etc. Time also has another, no less important property - irreversibility. It is impossible to return to any initial time point; the time vector always has a one-way direction and moves from the past to the future. Unlike time, space is a more complex concept and has a three-dimensional dimension (height, length, width). Thus, all types of matter can move in space in a certain period of time.
Forms of motion of matter
Everything that surrounds us moves in space and interacts with each other. Movement occurs continuously and is the main property that all types of matter possess. Meanwhile, this process can occur not only during the interaction of several objects, but also within the substance itself, causing its modifications. The following forms of motion of matter are distinguished:
- Mechanical is the movement of objects in space (an apple falling from a branch, a hare running).
- Physical - occurs when the body changes its characteristics (for example, state of aggregation). Examples: snow melts, water evaporates, etc.
- Chemical - modification of the chemical composition of a substance (metal corrosion, glucose oxidation)
- Biological - takes place in living organisms and characterizes vegetative growth, metabolism, reproduction, etc.
- Social form - processes of social interaction: communication, holding meetings, elections, etc.
- Geological - characterizes the movement of matter in the earth's crust and the interior of the planet: core, mantle.
All of the above forms of matter are interconnected, complementary and interchangeable. They cannot exist independently and are not self-sufficient.
Properties of matter
Ancient and modern science have attributed many properties to matter. The most common and obvious is movement, but there are other universal properties:
- It is uncreated and indestructible. This property means that any body or substance exists for some time, develops, and ceases to exist as an original object, but matter does not cease to exist, but simply turns into other forms.
- It is eternal and infinite in space.
- Constant movement, transformation, modification.
- Predetermination, dependence on generating factors and causes. This property is a kind of explanation of the origin of matter as a consequence of certain phenomena.
Main types of matter
Modern scientists distinguish three fundamental types of matter:
- A substance that has a certain mass at rest is the most common type. It can consist of particles, molecules, atoms, as well as their compounds that form a physical body.
- A physical field is a special material substance that is designed to ensure the interaction of objects (substances).
- Physical vacuum is a material environment with the lowest energy level.
Substance
Substance is a type of matter, the main property of which is discreteness, that is, discontinuity, limitation. Its structure includes tiny particles in the form of protons, electrons and neutrons that make up an atom. Atoms combine into molecules to form matter, which in turn forms a physical body or fluid substance.
Any substance has a number of individual characteristics that distinguish it from others: mass, density, boiling and melting points, crystal lattice structure. Under certain conditions, different substances can be combined and mixed. In nature, they are found in three states of aggregation: solid, liquid and gaseous. In this case, a specific state of aggregation only corresponds to the conditions of the substance content and the intensity of molecular interaction, but is not its individual characteristic. Thus, water at different temperatures can take on liquid, solid, and gaseous forms.
Physical field
Types of physical matter also include such a component as a physical field. It represents a certain system in which material bodies interact. The field is not an independent object, but rather a carrier of the specific properties of the particles that formed it. Thus, the impulse released from one particle, but not absorbed by another, is part of the field.
Physical fields are real intangible forms of matter that have the property of continuity. They can be classified according to various criteria:
- Depending on the field-forming charge, electric, magnetic and gravitational fields are distinguished.
- According to the nature of the movement of charges: dynamic field, statistical (contains charged particles that are motionless relative to each other).
- By physical nature: macro- and microfields (created by the movement of individual charged particles).
- Depending on the environment of existence: external (which surrounds charged particles), internal (the field inside the substance), true (the total value of the external and internal fields).
Physical vacuum
In the 20th century, the term “physical vacuum” appeared in physics as a compromise between materialists and idealists to explain certain phenomena. The first attributed material properties to it, while the second argued that vacuum is nothing more than emptiness. Modern physics has refuted the judgments of idealists and proved that vacuum is a material medium, also called a quantum field. The number of particles in it is equal to zero, which, however, does not prevent the short-term appearance of particles in intermediate phases. In quantum theory, the energy level of the physical vacuum is conventionally taken to be minimal, that is, equal to zero. However, it has been experimentally proven that the energy field can take on both negative and positive charges. There is a hypothesis that the Universe arose precisely in conditions of an excited physical vacuum.
The structure of the physical vacuum has not yet been fully studied, although many of its properties are known. According to Dirac's hole theory, the quantum field consists of moving quanta with identical charges; the composition of the quanta themselves, clusters of which move in the form of wave flows, remains unclear.
In a vacuum contained in the volume of an ordinary
light bulb, so much energy
amount that would be enough to boil
all the oceans on Earth.
R. Feynman, J. Wheeler.
The main meaning of the newest world discoveries is this: the physical vacuum dominates in the universe; in energy density it exceeds all ordinary forms of matter combined. Although the vacuum is most often called cosmic, it is present everywhere, penetrating through all space and matter. Physical vacuum is the most energy-intensive, literally inexhaustible source of vital, environmentally friendly energy. The physical vacuum is a single energy-information field of the Universe.
Currently, a fundamentally new direction of scientific research is being formed in physics, related to the study of the properties and capabilities of the physical vacuum. This scientific direction is becoming dominant, and in applied aspects can lead to breakthrough technologies in the field of energy, electronics, and ecology.
To understand the role and place of vacuum in the current picture of the world, we will try to assess how vacuum matter and matter relate in our world.
In this regard, the reasoning of Ya.B. Zeldovich is interesting: “The Universe is huge. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 150 million kilometers. The distance from the solar system to the center of the Galaxy is 2 billion times greater than the distance from the Earth to the Sun. In turn, the size of the observed The Universe is a million times greater than the distance from the Sun to our Galaxy, and all this huge space is filled with an unimaginably large amount of matter.
The mass of the Earth is more than 5.97 X 10 to the 27th power of a gram. This is such a large value that it is difficult to even comprehend.
The mass of the Sun is 333 thousand times greater. Only in the observable region of the Universe the total mass is of the order of 10 to the 22nd power of the mass of the Sun. The whole boundless vastness of space and the fabulous amount of matter in it amazes the imagination."
On the other hand, an atom that is part of a solid body is many times smaller than any object known to us, but many times larger than the nucleus located at the center of the atom. Almost all the matter of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. If you enlarge the atom so that the nucleus has the size of a poppy seed, then the size of the atom will increase to several tens of meters. At a distance of tens of meters from the nucleus there will be many times enlarged electrons, which are still difficult to see with the eye due to their small size. And between the electrons and the nucleus there will be a huge space not filled with matter. But this is not empty space, but a special type of matter, which physicists called physical vacuum.
The very concept of “physical vacuum” appeared in science as a consequence of the realization that vacuum is not emptiness, is not “nothing”. It represents an extremely significant “something” that gives birth to everything in the world and sets the properties of the substance from which the surrounding world is built.
It turns out that even inside a solid and massive object, vacuum occupies immeasurably more space than matter. Thus, we come to the conclusion that matter is the rarest exception in the vast space filled with the substance of vacuum. In a gaseous environment, such asymmetry is even more pronounced, not to mention in space, where the presence of matter is more the exception than the rule. One can see how staggeringly huge the amount of vacuum matter in the Universe is in comparison with even the fabulously large amount of matter in it. Currently, scientists already know that matter owes its origin to the material substance of vacuum, and all the properties of matter are determined by the properties of physical vacuum.
Science is penetrating deeper into the essence of vacuum. The fundamental role of vacuum in the formation of the laws of the material world is revealed. It is no longer surprising that some scientists claim that “everything is from a vacuum and everything around us is a vacuum.”
Physics, having made a breakthrough in describing the essence of vacuum, has laid the conditions for its practical use in solving many problems, including energy and environmental problems.
According to the calculations of Nobel laureate R. Feynman and J. Wheeler, the energy potential of vacuum is so enormous that “in the vacuum contained in the volume of an ordinary light bulb, there is such an amount of energy that it would be enough to boil all the oceans on Earth..
However, until now the traditional scheme for obtaining energy from matter remains not only dominant, but is even considered the only possible one. The environment still stubbornly continues to be understood as matter, of which there is so little, forgetting about the vacuum, of which there is so much. It is precisely this old “material” approach that has led to the fact that humanity, literally swimming in energy, experiences energy hunger.
The new, “vacuum” approach proceeds from the fact that the surrounding space - the physical vacuum - is an integral part of the energy conversion system. At the same time, the possibility of obtaining vacuum energy finds a natural explanation without deviating from physical laws. The way is opening up to create energy plants with an excess energy balance, in which the energy received exceeds the energy expended by the primary power source. Energy installations with an excess energy balance will be able to open access to the enormous vacuum energy stored by Nature itself.
In conclusion, it should be added to what has been said that astronomers have calculated and theoretically proven the existence of energy in the vacuum of the Universe. According to their calculations, only 2-3% of this energy is spent on the creation of the visible world (galaxies, stars and planets), and the rest of the energy is in the Physical vacuum. In one of his books, J. Wheeler gave an estimate of the lower limit of this infinite energy, which turned out to be equal to 1095 g/cm3. Therefore, it is not surprising that vacuum is ultimately the source of all existing types of energy, and it is best to obtain energy directly from vacuum.
Higher physics of vacuum
In recent years, newspapers, radio, magazines and television almost daily provide us with information about phenomena that are called anomalous. We learn about various recurring events related to the human psyche (clairvoyance, telekinesis, telepathy, teleportation, levitation, extrasensory perception, etc.) All this information, which causes a defensive reaction in the natural scientist in the form of “suspicious skepticism,” most likely indicates the limitations existing scientific knowledge.
A broader view of the problem is proposed in the program of general relativity and the theory of physical vacuum developed by the authors, the main goal of which is to unite on a scientific basis the ideas of the cultures of the East and West about the reality around us. As it turned out, the physical mediator in the phenomena of psychophysics are primary torsion fields, which have a number of unusual properties, namely:
a) Fields do not transfer energy, but they do transfer information;
b) The intensity of the torsion signal is the same at any distance from the source;
c) The speed of the torsion signal exceeds the speed of light;
d) The torsion signal has high penetrating ability.
All these properties, obtained from a theoretical analysis of the vacuum equations, coincide with the properties of the physical mediator established in a large number of experimental works.
Religious books and ancient philosophical treatises claim that in addition to the physical body, a person has astral and mental, etc. bodies formed by “subtle matters” and capable of retaining information about a person even after the death of his physical body. The vacuum theory confirms these ideas, since in this theory (in addition to the four levels of reality already known to us - solid, liquid, gas and elementary particles) there are objects that describe the physical properties of the subtle worlds associated with human consciousness. For a medical professional, this means that treating only the physical body of a person does not lead to success in treating diseases caused by disturbances in the fields in his subtle bodies.
SEVEN LEVELS OF REALITY
One of the significant results of the theory of vacuum is the taxonomy of psychophysical phenomena in accordance with the following seven levels of physical reality: solid body (earth), liquid (water), gas (air), plasma (fire), physical vacuum (ether), primary torsion fields ( field of consciousness), Absolute<Ничто>(Divine Monad). Indeed, the existing scientific and technical literature mainly reflects the level of knowledge achieved to date of the first four levels of reality, which are considered as four phase states of matter. All physical theories known to us, starting with Newtonian mechanics and ending with modern theories of fundamental physical interactions, are engaged in the theoretical and experimental study of the behavior of solids, liquids, gases, various fields and elementary particles. Over the past twenty years, facts have been emerging at an increasing pace that indicate that there are two more levels, this is the level of the primary field of torsion (or the “Field of Consciousness”, as well as the information field) and the level of Absolute “Nothing”. These levels are recognized by many researchers as the levels of reality on which technologies long lost by humanity are based.
The main method of understanding reality in such technologies is meditation, in contrast to reflection, which is used as a method of understanding the surrounding world in objective physics. The two upper levels, including the partial and vacuum level, form. These levels are recognized by many researchers as the levels of reality on which technologies long lost by humanity are based. The main method of understanding reality in such technologies is meditation, in contrast to reflection, which is used as a method of understanding the surrounding world in objective physics. The two upper levels, including partially the vacuum level, form “subjective physics”, since the main factor in phenomena of various kinds at the lower levels is consciousness (yogi flights, telekinesis, clairvoyance, parapsychology, experiments of Uri Geller, etc.). The main energy operating at the upper levels is psychic energy, which plays a vital role in matters of medicine. Currently, scientists in more than 120 countries around the world are engaged in intensive study of the second level. For this purpose, scientific centers equipped with modern equipment have been created, and scientific programs have been developed that make it possible to obtain real, quite impressive achievements in many areas of human life; in health, study, ecology, science, etc. These achievements convincingly show that the opposition between the material and the ideal, matter and consciousness, science and religion, rooted in the second level, significantly limits our ideas about reality. Most likely, all these opposites constitute a dialectical unity at all levels of reality and simultaneously manifest themselves to varying degrees in a given situation. It is clear that without taking into account the upper three levels, the picture of the world will be incomplete. Moreover, there is a merger of modern methods of studying physical laws with obtaining “pure knowledge”, through the interaction of human consciousness with the “Field of Consciousness”, * which, according to the scientific program, represents a single source for both the laws of natural science and social laws. Therefore, psychophysics (subphysics) refers to phenomena the main cause of which is human consciousness, and the main technology is meditation.
MEDITATION
In the East, several thousand years ago, a completely unusual (from the standpoint of Western science) way of understanding reality arose - meditation. As a result of a special technique, a person engaged in meditation can purposefully expand the area of interaction of his Consciousness with the Information Field (Field of Consciousness), the carrier of which is the primary torsion field, and thus gain knowledge about the world around us. In 1972, the Indian philosopher and physicist Maharishi Mahesh Yogi founded an international university in the USA for the practical application of meditation in various areas of life in modern society: the astral and mental bodies are formed from secondary torsion fields, i.e. generated by the atomic-molecular structure of the physical body. The remaining subtle bodies - the casual, soul and spirit - are formed by primary torsion fields and interact directly with the field of consciousness. The totality of subtle bodies forms human consciousness.
VACUUM THEORY AND ANCIENT TEACHINGS
Many ancient treatises of Eastern philosophy claim that the source of all things is empty space or vacuum in the modern sense. The development of science has led physicists to exactly the same idea about the source of matter of any kind and laid the foundation for the study of the fifth (after solid, liquid, gas and plasma) vacuum state of reality on the basis of the modern new level of reality - physical vacuum, with theories that are different in nature gave different ideas about him. If in Einstein's theory the vacuum is considered as an empty four-dimensional space-time endowed with Riemann geometry, then in Maxwell-Dirac electrodynamics the vacuum (globally neutral) is a kind of “boiling broth” consisting of virtual particles - electrons and antiparticles - positrons. Further development of quantum field theory showed that the ground state of all quantum fields - physical vacuum - is formed not only by virtual electrons and positrons, but also by all other known particles and antiparticles that are in a virtual state. In order to combine these two different ideas about the vacuum, Einstein put forward a program called the unified field theory program. In theoretical physics devoted to this issue, two global ideas were formulated, suggesting the creation of a unified picture of the world: this is the program of Riemann, Clifford and Einstein, according to which “... nothing happens in the physical world except a change in the curvature of space, obeying (possibly) the law continuity", and Heisenberg's program to build all matter particles from spin 1/2 particles. The difficulty in combining these two programs, according to Einstein's student, the famous theorist John Wheeler, is that: "... the idea of deriving the concept of spin from classical geometry alone seems as impossible as the meaningless hope of some researchers of previous years derive quantum mechanics from the theory of relativity." Wheeler expressed these words in 1960, giving lectures at the International School of Physics. Enrico Fermi, and still did not know that already at that time the brilliant work of Penrose had begun, which showed that it was spinors that could be the basis of classical geometry and that it was they that determined the topological and geometric properties of space-time, such as, for example, its dimension and signature. Therefore, a new picture of the world, according to the author, can only be found by combining the Riemann-Clifford-Einstein-Heisenberg-Penrose program with numerous phenomenology that do not fit into modern scientific ideas. Now it becomes clear that the program of the Unified Field Theory has grown into the Theory of Physical Vacuum, which is designed to explain not only the phenomena of objective physics, but also psychophysical phenomena. Today, there is a wealth of factual material related to psychophysical phenomena, but there is still no solid theoretical basis in the existing works, including the work of Hagelin. Any attempts to explain existing facts in isolation from modern science cannot be considered successful, since reality is a single whole, and psychophysics, on the one hand, and modern physics, on the other, represent different facets of a single whole. In this work, it was shown that some very general properties of psychophysical phenomena (for example, superluminal transmission of information) follow from the theory of physical vacuum. This theory is the result of the natural development of physical science and therefore it is not surprising that it is the phenomena of psychophysics that represent a powerful argument for the generalization of modern physical theories. Experiments show that the main tool of psychophysics is human consciousness, capable of “connecting” to the primary field of torsion (or the Unified Field of Consciousness) and through it influencing the “rough” levels of reality - plasma, gas, liquid and solid body. It is likely that in a vacuum there are critical points (bifurcation points) at which all levels of reality appear simultaneously in a virtual way. Insignificant influences on these critical points by the “field of consciousness” are sufficient for the development of events to lead to the birth from a vacuum of either a solid body, a liquid or a gas, etc. The existence of the phenomenon of teleportation of objects indicates the possibility of “going into a vacuum” and “birth from a vacuum” not only of elementary particles and antiparticles, but also of more complex physical objects, which are a huge, ordered accumulation of these particles. It is important to note that in addition to gravitational and electromagnetic fields, the theory of physical vacuum allocates a special role to the field of consciousness, the physical carrier of which is the field of inertia (torsion field). This physical field generates inertial forces that act on any type of matter due to their universality. It is possible that the phenomenon of telekinesis (the movement of objects of various natures by psychophysical effort) is explained by a person’s ability to disturb the physical vacuum near an object in such a way that fields and inertial forces arise that cause the object to move. The author expresses the hope that it is the theory of physical vacuum that will prove to be the scientific basis that will allow us to explain such mysterious phenomena as the phenomena of psychophysics.
COSMIC EVOLUTION OF HUMAN
The theory of physical vacuum forces us to reconsider the relationship between matter and consciousness, giving priority to consciousness as the creative beginning of any real process. The creation of worlds and the substances from which they consist begins with Absolute “Nothing” from a potential state of matter - a physical vacuum without any initially manifested matter. The number of possible worlds in this situation is limitless, therefore superconsciousness - Absolute "Nothing" needs in the process of creation voluntary assistants, whom it itself creates at the level of manifested matter "in its own image and likeness." The goal of these helpers is constant self-improvement and evolution.
The evolutionary ladder is built in accordance with the seven-level scheme of reality that arises in the theory of physical vacuum, therefore the evolution of the assistant means moving up the ladder from the material manifestation to the subtle vacuum and supervacuum levels of reality. This goal unites all helpers, although they are at different levels of the evolutionary ladder. The higher the level the assistant is, the closer he is to the Absolute “Nothing” in his information and creative capabilities. For advanced assistants, these creative capabilities are so colossal that they are able to create star systems and intelligent beings like us in the manifested state. Man on our planet was created, perhaps, by assistants - creators (or creator) of a high level, and our destiny, like everything else in the world, is to help the Absolute “Nothing” in its creative work. The one who succeeds in this, in the process of this work, rises up the evolutionary ladder, becoming free and receiving more and more opportunities for creative activity.
"Everything in the Universe is energy-information interaction"
Until now, there are two concepts in the world regarding the structure of all living things and, in particular, the human body, diseases and methods of treating them. One of them, which has been developing recently, is biochemical and physiological (European) and the other, which has come down to us from ancient times through India and China, is energy. Within the first direction, the human body is considered at the bodily level, without any concepts associated with subtle energies. This direction is characterized, on the one hand, by scientific and technological achievements, and on the other, by the inability to really cope with the constant numerical growth of serious diseases (myocardial infarction, stroke, cancer, viral diseases, AIDS, etc.), and the problem of aging. However, many scientists strive to study themselves and the world around them in the unity of these two concepts, complementing, rather than excluding them, in the problem of health and longevity. Among these scientists are world-famous physicists, chemists, biologists, doctors: Louis Pasteur, Pierre Curie, Vladimir Vernadsky, Alexander Gurvich. The problem of health in the material presented is considered from the perspective of both concepts.
It's no secret that the space of the Universe (physical vacuum) is filled with many sufficiently studied physical fields (electric, magnetic, gravitational, etc.), and all these fields are created as a result of various radiations from many cosmic bodies in the Universe. In the course of life, a person is exposed to many environmental factors that determine his life. The human body interacts with a large number of living and inanimate objects - respectively, with the Earth - through not only the known sense organs, but also through various fields, including electric, magnetic and gravitational. At the end of the twentieth century, as a result of theoretical and practical research, science became aware of energy and fields of non-electromagnetic origin, often called torsion, thin. Long-term research conducted by the author in the field of subtle fields allows us to say that when solving problems of ensuring the quality of life, the central issue is the energy supply of a person and his interaction through his energy system (biological field) with the energies of the environment of the subtle plane.
At the present stage of our research, the knowledge gained has allowed us to reach an unprecedented level of ensuring the quality and duration of human life. Having studied the nature of energy and fields of this type, the developers of this technology were able, for the first time in world practice, to find a way to obtain them and use them for the benefit of people.
Every person has heard at least once in his life about various miraculous healings with “living water.” Let us note that the degree of beneficial effect on the human body in the above water is determined by the amount of energy and the necessary information concentrated in it. Having studied the nature of such miracles, the reason for this kind of healing and the “panacea” of such water becomes clear.
It is known that water has magnetic properties to attract, accumulate and be a carrier of energy and information of the surrounding space. For example, by changing space with certain geometric forms (buildings), you can increase the energy-informational properties of water when placing it inside the form, and the longer it stays there, the more healing properties it acquires. The location of such objects or bodies of water is also important, where the energy-informational potential of a given space is determined by dowsing. Holy water (dome effect), water from the pyramids, structured water, boundary water, Epiphany water, melt water, water with negative proton values in the strata of Lake Baikal are based on a similar principle.
It is known that for existence and regeneration, the cells of the body are supplied not only with energy released as a result of metabolism, but also with the all-pervasive energy of the physical vacuum, therefore, the interaction of cells with each other is ensured through their common field. The state of human health is 99% determined by the sufficient quantity and quality of provision of cells, tissues and the body as a whole with adequate energy and information resources. The latest research has established that almost all healthy (differentiated) cells of today's average person experience a colossal deficiency in adequate energy and information, which causes high immunodeficiency and extremely unsatisfactory metabolism. It is not surprising that the vast majority of the world's population, including children, are now deeply affected by various and, unfortunately, no longer curable diseases.
" Physical vacuum"
Introduction
The concept of vacuum in the history of philosophy and science was usually used to designate emptiness, “empty” space, i.e. “pure” extension, absolutely opposed to bodily, material formations. The latter were considered as pure inclusions in the vacuum. This view of the nature of vacuum was characteristic of ancient Greek science, the founders of which were Leucippus, Democritus, and Aristotle. Atoms and emptiness are two objective realities that appeared in the atomism of Democritus. Emptiness is as objective as atoms. Only the presence of emptiness makes movement possible. This concept of vacuum was developed in the works of Epicurus, Lucretius, Bruno, Galileo and others. The most detailed argument in favor of vacuum was given by Locke. The concept of vacuum was most fully revealed from the natural science side in Newton's doctrine of “absolute space,” understood as an empty container for material objects. But already in the 17th century, the voices of philosophers and physicists were heard louder and louder, denying the existence of a vacuum, since the question of the nature of the interaction between atoms turned out to be insoluble. According to Democritus, atoms interact with each other only through direct mechanical contact. But this led to internal inconsistency of the theory, since the stable nature of bodies could only be explained by the continuity of matter, i.e. denial of the existence of emptiness, the starting point of the theory. Galileo's attempt to circumvent this contradiction by considering small voids inside bodies as binding forces could not lead to success within the framework of a narrow mechanistic interpretation of interaction. With the development of science, these frameworks were subsequently broken - the thesis was proposed that interaction can be transmitted not only mechanically, but also by electric, magnetic and gravitational forces. However, this did not solve the vacuum problem. Two concepts of interaction were fought: “long-range” and “short-range”. The first was based on the possibility of an infinitely high speed of propagation of forces through the void. The second required the presence of some intermediate, continuous environment. The first recognized the vacuum, the second denied it. The first metaphysically contrasted matter and “empty” space, introduced elements of mysticism and irrationalism into science, while the second proceeded from the fact that matter cannot act where it does not exist. Refuting the existence of a vacuum, Descartes wrote: “... as for empty space in the sense in which philosophers understand this word, that is, a space where there is no substance, it is obvious that there is no space in the world that would be such, because the extension of space as an internal place does not differ from the extension of the body." The denial of vacuum in the works of Descartes and Huygens served as the starting point for the creation of the physical hypothesis of the ether, which lasted in science until the beginning of the 20th century. The development of the field theory at the end of the 19th century and the emergence of the theory of relativity at the beginning of the 20th century finally “buried” the theory of “long-range action.” The theory of the ether was also destroyed, since the existence of an absolute reference system was rejected. But the collapse of the hypothesis of the existence of the ether did not mean a return to previous ideas about the presence of empty space: ideas about physical fields were preserved and further developed. The problem, posed in ancient times, has been solved practically by modern science. There is no vacuum void. The presence of “pure” extension, “empty” space contradicts the basic principles of natural science. Space is not a special entity that has existence along with matter. Just as matter cannot be deprived of its spatial properties, so space cannot be “empty”, divorced from matter. This conclusion is also confirmed in quantum field theory. W. Lamb's discovery of a shift in the levels of atomic electrons and further work in this direction led to an understanding of the nature of vacuum as a special state of the field. This state is characterized by the lowest field energy and the presence of zero field oscillations. Zero field oscillations manifest themselves in the form of experimentally discovered effects. Consequently, the vacuum in quantum electrodynamics has a number of physical properties and cannot be considered as a metaphysical void. Moreover, the properties of the vacuum determine the properties of the matter around us, and the physical vacuum itself is the initial abstraction for physics.
Evolution of viewson the problem of physical vacuum
Since ancient times, since the emergence of physics and philosophy as a scientific discipline, the minds of scientists have been troubled by the same problem - what is a vacuum. And, despite the fact that by now many mysteries of the structure of the Universe have been solved, the mystery of the vacuum - what it is - still remains unresolved. Translated from Latin, vacuum means emptiness, but is it worth calling something that is not emptiness? Greek science was the first to introduce the four primary elements that form the world - water, earth, fire and air. For them, every thing in the world was composed of particles of one or several of these elements. Then the question arose before philosophers: can there exist a place where there is nothing - no earth, no water, no air, no fire? Does true emptiness exist? Leucippus and Democritus, who lived in the 5th century. BC e. came to the conclusion: everything in the world consists of atoms and the void separating them. Emptiness, according to Democritus, made it possible to move, develop and make any changes, since atoms are indivisible. Thus, Democritus was the first to assign the vacuum the role it plays in modern science. He also posed the problem of existence and non-existence. Recognizing existence (atoms) and non-existence (vacuum), he said that both are matter and the cause of the existence of things on equal terms. Emptiness, according to Democritus, was also matter, and the difference in the weight of things was determined by the different amount of emptiness contained in them. Aristotle believed that emptiness can be imagined, but it does not exist. Otherwise, he believed, infinite speed becomes possible, but in principle it cannot exist. Therefore, emptiness does not exist. In addition, there would be no differences in the void: neither up nor down, neither right nor left - everything in it would be at complete peace. In emptiness, all directions will be equal; it does not in any way affect the body placed in it. Thus, the movement of the body in it is not determined by anything, but this cannot be. Further, the concept of vacuum was replaced by the concept of ether. Ether is a certain divine substance - immaterial, indivisible, eternal, free from the opposites inherent in the elements of nature and therefore qualitatively unchanged. Ether is a comprehensive and supporting element of the universe. As you can see, ancient scientific thought was distinguished by a certain primitivism, but it also had some advantages. In particular, ancient scientists were not constrained by experiments and calculations, so they sought to understand the world more than to transform it. But in the views of Aristotle, the first attempts to understand the structure of matter that surrounds us already appear. He determines some of its properties based on qualitative assumptions. The theoretical struggle against emptiness continued into the Middle Ages. “...I am confirmed in the opinion,” Blaise Pascal summed up his experiences, “which I have always shared, namely, that emptiness is not something impossible, that nature does not at all avoid emptiness with such fear as it seems to many.” Having refuted Torricelli’s experiments with producing emptiness “artificially,” he determined the place of emptiness in mechanics. The appearance of the barometer, and then the air pump, is a practical result of this. The first person to determine the place of emptiness in classical mechanics was Newton. According to Newton, celestial bodies are immersed in absolute emptiness. And it is the same everywhere, there are no differences in it. In fact, Newton used the fact that Aristotle did not allow him to recognize the possibility of emptiness to substantiate his mechanics. Thus, the existence of emptiness had already been proven experimentally, and even formed the basis of the most influential physical and philosophical system at that time. But, despite this, the fight against this idea flared up with renewed vigor. And one of those who strongly disagreed with the idea of the existence of emptiness was Rene Descartes. Having predicted the discovery of emptiness, he stated that this is not a real emptiness: “We consider a vessel empty when there is no water in it, but in fact, air remains in such a vessel. If you remove the air from the “empty” vessel, there is something again in it - something should remain, but we simply won’t feel this “something.” Descartes tried to build on the concept of emptiness, introduced earlier, and gave it the name ether, which was used by ancient Greek philosophers. He understood that calling vacuum emptiness is incorrect, because it is not emptiness in the literal sense of the word. Absolute emptiness, according to Descartes, cannot exist, since extension is an attribute, an indispensable sign and even the essence of matter; and if so, then wherever there is extension - that is, space itself - matter must exist. That is why he stubbornly pushed away from the concept of emptiness. Matter is, as Descartes argued, of three kinds, consisting of three types of particles: earth, air and fire. These particles are of “different fineness” and move differently. Since absolute emptiness is impossible, any movement of any particles brings others in their place, and all matter is in continuous motion. From this, Descartes concludes that all physical bodies are the result of vortex movements in the incompressible and non-expanding ether. This hypothesis, beautiful and spectacular, had a huge impact on the development of science. The idea of representing bodies (and particles) as some kind of vortices, condensations in a more subtle material environment turned out to be very viable. And the fact that elementary particles should be considered as excitations of the vacuum is a recognized scientific truth. But, nevertheless, such a modification of the ether left the physical scene, because it was too “philosophical”, and tried to explain everything in the world at once, outlining the structure of the universe. Newton's attitude towards the ether deserves special mention. Newton either argued that the ether does not exist, or, on the contrary, fought for the recognition of this concept. The ether was an invisible entity, one of those entities to which the great English physicist categorically and very consistently objected. He studied not the types of forces and their properties, but their magnitudes and mathematical relationships between them. He was always interested in what can be determined by experience and measured numerically. The famous “I don’t invent hypotheses!” meant a decisive rejection of speculation that was not confirmed by objective experiments. And Newton did not show such consistency in relation to the ether. This is why this happened. Newton not only believed in God, omnipresent and omnipotent, but also could not imagine him otherwise than in the form of a special substance that permeates all space and regulates all the forces of interaction between bodies, and thereby all the movements of bodies, everything that happens in the world. That is, God is ether. From the point of view of the church, this is heresy, and from the point of view of Newton’s principled position, it is speculation. Therefore, Newton does not dare to write about this conviction, but only occasionally expresses it in conversations. But Newton's authority added significance to the concept of the ether. Contemporaries and descendants paid more attention to the physicist’s statements that asserted the existence of the ether than to those that denied its existence. The concept of “ether” at that time included everything that, as we now know, is caused by gravitational and electromagnetic forces. But since other fundamental forces of the world were practically not studied before the advent of atomic physics, they attempted to explain any phenomenon and any process with the help of the ether. Too much was placed on this mysterious matter that even the real substance was unable to live up to such hopes and not disappoint the researchers. It should be noted about one more role of the ether in physics. They tried to use the ether to explain the ideas of world unity, for communication between parts of the Universe. For centuries, the ether has served as a weapon for many physicists in the struggle against the possibility of action at a distance - against the idea that force can be transmitted from one body to another through the void. Even Galileo firmly knew that energy passes from one body to another upon their direct contact. Newton's laws of mechanics are based on this principle. Meanwhile, the force of gravity, it turned out, seemed to act through empty outer space. This means that it should not be empty, it means that it is completely filled with certain particles that transmit forces from one celestial body to another, or even by their own movements ensure the action of the law of universal gravitation. In the 19th century, the idea of the ether became for a time the theoretical basis for the actively developing field of electromagnetism. Electricity began to be viewed as a kind of liquid that could only be identified with the ether. At the same time, it was emphasized in every possible way that there is only one electric fluid. Already at that time, major physicists could not come to terms with the return to a multitude of weightless liquids, although in science the question of the fact that there are several ethers was raised more than once. By the end of the 19th century, the ether, one might say, became generally accepted - there was no arguing about its existence. Another question is that no one knew that he was representing himself. James Clerk Maxwell explained electromagnetic influences using a mechanical model of the ether. The magnetic field, according to Maxwell's constructions, arises because it is created by tiny ethereal vortices, something like thin rotating cylinders. To prevent the cylinders from touching each other and preventing each other from rotating, tiny balls (like lubricant) were placed between them. Both the cylinders and the balls were ethereal, but the balls played the role of particles of electricity. The model was complex, but it demonstrated and explained in familiar mechanical language many characteristic electromagnetic phenomena. It is believed that Maxwell derived his famous equations based on the ether hypothesis. Later, having discovered that light is a type of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell identified the “luminiferous” and “electric” ether, which at one time existed in parallel. While the ether was a theoretical construct, it could withstand any onslaught of skeptics. But when it was endowed with specific properties, the situation changed; the ether was supposed to ensure the operation of the law of universal gravitation; the ether turned out to be the medium through which light waves travel; the ether was the source of the manifestation of electromagnetic forces. To do this, it had to have too contradictory properties. However, physics of the late 19th century had an undeniable advantage; its statements could be verified by calculations and experiment. To explain how such mutually exclusive facts coexisted in the nature of one matter, the theory of the ether had to be supplemented all the time, and these additions looked increasingly artificial. The decline of the hypothesis of the existence of the ether began with the determination of its speed. During Michelson's experiments in 1881, it was found that the speed of the ether is zero relative to the laboratory frame of reference. However, the results of his experiments were not taken into account by many physicists of that time. The hypothesis of the existence of the ether was too convenient, and there was no other substitute for it. And most physicists of that time did not take into account Michelson’s experiments in determining the speed of the ether, although they admired the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light in various media. However, two scientists - J.F. Fitzgerald and G. Lorenz, realizing the seriousness of the experiment for the hypothesis of the existence of the ether, decided to “save” it. They suggested that objects moving against the flow of the ether change their size and shrink as they approach the speed of light. The hypothesis was brilliant, the formulas were precise, but it did not achieve its goal, and the assumption put forward by two scientists independently received recognition only after the defeat of the hypothesis of the existence of the ether in the battle with the theory of relativity. World space in the theory of relativity itself serves as a material environment that interacts with gravitating bodies; it itself has taken on some of the functions of the former ether. The need for the ether as a medium providing an absolute reference system disappeared, since it turned out that all reference systems are relative. After Maxwell's concept of a field was extended to gravity, the very need for the ether of Fresnel, Le Sage and Kelvin disappeared in order to make long-range action impossible: the gravitational field and other physical fields assumed the responsibility of transmitting action. With the advent of the theory of relativity, the field became a primary physical reality, and not a consequence of some other reality. The very property of elasticity, so important for the ether, turned out to be associated with the electromagnetic interaction of particles in all material bodies. In other words, it was not the elasticity of the ether that provided the basis for electromagnetism, but electromagnetism served as the basis for elasticity in general. Thus, ether was invented because it was needed. A certain omnipresent material environment, as Einstein believed, must still exist and have certain specific properties. But a continuum endowed with physical properties is not exactly the old ether. For Einstein, space itself is endowed with physical properties. This is sufficient for the general theory of relativity; it does not require any special material environment in this space. However, space itself, with physical properties new to science, could, following Einstein, be called ether. In modern physics, along with the theory of relativity, quantum field theory is also used. She, for her part, comes to endow the vacuum with physical properties. Precisely vacuum, and not the mythical ether. Academician A.B. Migdal writes about this: “In essence, physicists returned to the concept of ether, but without contradictions. The old concept was not taken from the archive - it arose anew in the process of the development of science.”
Physical vacuumas the starting point of the theory
structure of the universe
The search for the unity of natural science knowledge presupposes the problem of determining the starting point of the theory. This problem is especially important for modern physics, where a unified approach is used to build a theory of interactions. The latest development of elementary particle physics has led to the emergence and establishment of a number of new concepts. The most important of them are the following, closely related concepts: - the idea of geometric interpretation of interactions and quanta of physical fields; -- an idea of special states of physical vacuum - polarized vacuum condensates. The geometric interpretation of particles and interactions is implemented in the so-called gauge and supergauge theories. In 1972, F. Klein put forward the “Erlangen Program,” which expressed the idea of systematically applying symmetry groups to the study of geometric objects. With the discovery of the theory of relativity, the group theoretical approach penetrates into physics. It is known that in the general theory of relativity the gravitational field is considered as a manifestation of the curvature of four-dimensional space-time, changes in its geometry due to the action of all kinds of matter. Thanks to the work of G. Weyl, V. Fock, F. London, it was subsequently possible to describe electromagnetism in terms of gauge invariance with the Abelian group. Subsequently, non-Abelian gauge fields were created that describe transformations of symmetry associated with rotation in isotopic space. Further, in 1979, a unified theory of electromagnetic and weak interactions was created. And now Grand Unification theories are being actively developed, combining strong and weak electric interactions, as well as Super Unification theories, including a unified system of strong and electroweak, as well as gravitational fields. In the Superunification theory, an attempt is made for the first time to organically combine the concepts of “matter” and “field”. Before the advent of the so-called supersymmetric theories, bosons (field quanta) and fermions (particles of matter) were considered as particles of different natures. In gauge theories this difference has not yet been removed. The gauge principle makes it possible to reduce the action of the field to the stratification of space, to the manifestation of its complex topology, and to represent all interactions and physical processes as movement along pseudo-geodesic trajectories of the stratified space. This is an attempt to geometrize physics. Bosonic fields are gauge fields directly and uniquely related to a certain symmetry group of the theory, and fermion fields are introduced into the theory quite arbitrarily. In the theory of Superunification, supersymmetry transformations are capable of converting bosonic states into fermionic ones and vice versa, and the bosons and fermions themselves are combined into single multiplets. It is characteristic that such an attempt in supersymmetric theories leads to the reduction of internal symmetries to external, spatial symmetries. The fact is that the transformations connecting a boson with a fermion, applied repeatedly, shift the particle to another point in space-time, i.e. from supertransformations we obtain Poincaré transforms. On the other hand, local symmetry with respect to the Poincaré transformation leads to the general theory of relativity. Thus, a connection is provided between local supersymmetry and the quantum theory of gravity, which are considered as theories that have a common content. The Kaluzi-Klein program used the idea of the possibility of the existence of space-time with dimensions greater than four. In these models, space has a larger dimension on the microscale than on the macroscale, since the additional dimensions turn out to be periodic coordinates, the period of which is vanishingly small. The extended five-dimensional space-time can be considered as a general covariant four-dimensional manifold with local invariance in the same space-time. The idea is the geometrization of internal symmetries. The fifth dimension in this theory is compactified and manifests itself in the form of an electromagnetic field with its symmetry, and therefore it no longer manifests itself as a spatial dimension. In itself, a consistent geometrization of all internal symmetries would be impossible for the following reason: only bosonic fields can be obtained from the metric, while the matter surrounding us consists of fermions. But, as noted above, in the theory of Superunification, Fermi and Bose particles are considered as equal, united into single multiplets. And it is in supersymmetric theories that the Kaluzi-Klein idea is especially attractive. Recently, the main hopes for building a unified theory of all interactions have begun to rest on the theory of superstrings. In this theory, point particles are replaced by superstrings in multidimensional space. With the help of strings, they try to characterize the field concentration in some thin one-dimensional region - a string, which is not achievable for other theories. A characteristic feature of a string is the presence of many degrees of freedom, which such a theoretical object as a material point does not have. A superstring, in contrast to a string, is an object supplemented, according to the Kaluzi-Klein idea, with a certain number of degrees of freedom greater than four. Currently, Superunification theories consider superstrings with ten or more degrees of freedom, six of which must be compactified into internal symmetries. From all of the above, we can conclude that a unified theory, apparently, can be built on the foundation of the geometrization of physics. This poses a new philosophical problem about the relationship between matter and space-time, because at first glance, the geometrization of physics leads to the separation of the concept of space-time from matter. Therefore, it seems important to identify the role of the physical vacuum as a material object in the formation of the geometry of the physical world known to us. Within the framework of modern physics, physical vacuum is the main thing, i.e. energetically lowest, quantum state of the field in which there are no free particles. Moreover, the absence of free particles does not mean the absence of so-called virtual particles (the processes of creation of which constantly occur in it) and fields (this would contradict the uncertainty principle). In modern physics of strong interactions, the main object of theoretical and experimental research is vacuum condensates - regions of already reconstructed vacuum with non-zero energy. In quantum chromodynamics, these are quark-gluon condensates, which carry about half the energy of hadrons. In hadrons, the state of vacuum condensates is stabilized by the chromodynamic fields of valence quarks, which carry the quantum numbers of hadrons. In addition, there is also a self-polarized vacuum condensate. It represents a region of space in which there are no quanta of fundamental fields, but their energy (fields) is not zero. A self-polarized vacuum is an example of how stratified space-time is a carrier of energy. A region of space-time with a self-polarized vacuum gluon condensate should manifest itself in experiment as a meson with zero quantum numbers (gluonium). This interpretation of mesons is of fundamental importance for physics, since in this case we are dealing with a particle of purely “geometric” origin. Gluonium can decay into other particles - quarks and leptons, i.e. we are dealing with the process of interconversion of vacuum condensates into field quanta or, in other words, with the transfer of energy from vacuum condensate into matter. From this review it is clear that modern achievements and ideas in physics can lead to an incorrect philosophical interpretation of the relationship between matter and space-time. The opinion that the geometrization of physics is reduced to the geometry of space-time is erroneous. In the theory of Superunification, an attempt is made to represent all matter in the form of a specific object - a single self-acting superfield. In themselves, geometrized theories in natural science are only forms of description of real processes. In order to obtain a theory of real processes from a formal geometrized theory of a superfield, it must be quantized. The quantization procedure presupposes the need for a macro environment. The role of such a macro-environment is assumed by space-time with classical non-quantum geometry. To obtain its space-time, it is necessary to isolate the macroscopic component of the superfield, i.e. a component that could with great accuracy be considered classical. But dividing the superfield into classical and quantum components is an approximate operation and does not always make sense. Thus, there is a limit beyond which the standard definitions of space-time and matter become meaningless. Spacetime and the matter behind it are reduced to the general category of a superfield, which has no operational definition (yet). So far we do not know by what laws the superfield evolves, because we do not have classical objects such as space-time with which we could describe the manifestations of the superfield, and we do not yet possess any other apparatus. Apparently, a multidimensional superfield is an element of an even more general integrity, and is the result of compactification of an infinite-dimensional manifold. The superfield, thus, can only be an element of another integrity. The further evolution of the superfield as a whole leads to the emergence of various types of matter, various forms of its movement, existing in four-dimensional space-time. The question of vacuum arises within the framework of an isolated whole - a superfield. The original form of our Universe, according to physicists, is vacuum. And when describing the history of the evolution of our Universe, a specific physical vacuum is considered. The mode of existence of this specific physical vacuum is the specific four-dimensional space-time that organizes it. In this sense, vacuum can be expressed through the category of content, and space-time - through the category of form as the internal organization of vacuum. In this context, considering separately the initial type of matter - vacuum and space-time of our Universe is a mistake, since it is a separation of form from content. Thus, we come to the question of the initial abstraction in constructing a theory of the physical world. Below are the main features that apply to the original abstraction. The initial abstraction must: -- be an element, the elementary structure of the object; - to be universal; - express the essence of the subject in an undeveloped form; - contain in an undeveloped form the contradictions of the subject; - to be the ultimate and immediate abstraction; - express the specifics of the subject under study; - coincide with what was historically the first in the real development of the subject. Next, we will consider all of the above properties of the original abstraction in relation to vacuum. Modern knowledge about the physical vacuum allows us to conclude that it satisfies all of the above characteristics of the original abstraction. Physical vacuum is an element, a particle of any physical process. Moreover, this particle carries within itself all the elements of the universal and permeates all aspects of the object under study. Vacuum enters into any physical process as a part, and as a specific universal part of integrity. In this sense, it is both a particle and a general characteristic of the process (satisfies the first two points of the definition). Abstraction must express the essence of the subject in an undeveloped form. Physical vacuum is directly involved in the formation of both qualitative and quantitative properties of physical objects. Properties such as spin, charge, mass manifest themselves precisely in interaction with a certain vacuum condensate due to the restructuring of the physical vacuum as a result of spontaneous symmetry breaking at the points of relativistic phase transitions. It is not possible to talk about the charge or mass of any elementary particle without connecting it with a well-defined state of physical vacuum. Consequently, the physical vacuum contains in an undeveloped form the contradictions of the subject, and therefore, according to the fourth point, it meets the requirements of the original abstraction. According to the fifth point, physical vacuum, as an abstraction, must express the specificity of phenomena. But according to the above, the specificity of this or that physical phenomenon turns out to be determined by a certain state of the vacuum condensate, which is part of this specific physical integrity. In modern cosmology and astrophysics, the opinion has also formed that the specific macroproperties of the Universe are determined by the properties of the physical vacuum. The global hypothesis in cosmology is the consideration of the evolution of the Universe from the vacuum state of a single superfield. This is the idea of the quantum birth of the Universe from a physical vacuum. The vacuum here is a “reservoir” of radiation, matter, and particles. Theories concerning the evolution of the Universe contain one common feature - the stage of exponential inflation of the Universe, when the entire world was represented only by such an object as a physical vacuum, which was in an unstable state. Inflationary theories predict the existence of an underlying structure of the Universe, which is a consequence of different types of symmetry breaking in different mini-Universes. In different mini-Universes, compactification of the original unified H-dimensional Kaluzi-Klein space could be carried out in different ways. However, the conditions necessary for the existence of life of our type can only be realized in four-dimensional space-time. Thus, the theory predicts many local homogeneous and isotropic Universes with different dimensions of space and with different states of vacuum, which once again indicates that space-time is only a way of existence of a very specific vacuum. The initial abstraction must be ultimate and immediate, that is, not mediated by another. The original abstraction is itself a relation. In connection with this, it should be noted that there is a “turning around” of the physical vacuum: in its self-motion, generating moments of itself, the physical vacuum itself turns around as part of this moment. All kinds of vacuum condensates play the role of macroconditions, in relation to which the properties of microobjects appear. The consequence of the wrapping of the vacuum during its self-propulsion is the physical indecomposability of the world, expressed in the fact that at the basis of each certainty, each physical state lies a specific vacuum condensate. The last feature required of the original abstraction is the requirement that it coincide in general and as a whole (in the ontological aspect) with what was historically the first in the real development of the subject. In other words, the ontological aspect comes down to the question of the vacuum stage of the cosmological expansion of the Universe in the vicinity of the Big Bang. The existing theory suggests the existence of such a stage. At the same time, there is also an experimental aspect to the question, because it is at the vacuum stage that a number of physical processes occur, the result of which is the formation of the macroproperties of the Universe as a whole. The consequences of these processes can be observed experimentally. We can say that the ontological aspect of the problem is at the stage of concrete theoretical and experimental research. New understanding of the essence of physical vacuum Modern physical theories demonstrate a tendency to move from particles - three-dimensional objects, to objects of a new type that have a lower dimension. For example, in superstring theory, the dimension of superstring objects is much smaller than the dimension of spacetime. It is believed that physical objects that have a smaller dimension have more grounds to claim fundamental status. Due to the fact that the physical vacuum lays claim to a fundamental status, even to the ontological basis of matter, it should have the greatest generality and should not have particular characteristics characteristic of many observable objects and phenomena. It is known that assigning any additional attribute to an object reduces the universality of this object. Thus, we come to the conclusion that ontological status can be claimed by an entity that is devoid of any signs, measures, structure and which in principle cannot be modeled, since any modeling involves the use of discrete objects and description using signs and measures. A physical entity claiming fundamental status need not be a composite, since a composite entity has a secondary status in relation to its constituents. Thus, the requirement of fundamentality and primacy for a certain entity entails the fulfillment of the following basic conditions:
- - Not to be composite. -- Have the least number of signs, properties and characteristics. -- Have the greatest commonality for the entire variety of objects and phenomena. - To be potentially everything, but actually nothing. - Have no measures.
Conclusion.
The current stage of development of physics has already reached the level when it is possible to consider the theoretical image of a physical vacuum in the structure of physical knowledge. It is the physical vacuum that most fully satisfies modern ideas about the original physical abstraction and, according to many scientists, has every right to claim fundamental status. This issue is now being actively studied, and the theoretical conclusions are quite consistent with the experimental data currently obtained in laboratories around the world. Solving the question of the initial abstraction - the physical vacuum - is extremely important, since it makes it possible to determine the starting point for the development of all physical knowledge. This allows us to implement the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, which will further reveal other secrets of the universe. 22
