1. Scientist who received a prize in 1862 for an experiment proving the impossibility of
Option 1
spontaneous generation of life
A) L. Pasteur
B) V.I.Vernadsky
C) A.I. Oparin
D) S. Miller
E) F. Redi
2. Contributed to the synthesis of the first organic substances on Earth from inorganic ones
A) low temperature
B) high volcanic activity
C) attenuation of volcanic activity
D) people
E) plants
3. In order to experimentally test Oparin’s hypothesis, S. Miller modeled in his flask:
A) the primordial ocean
B) model of the Earth
C) DNA model
D) aquarium
E) a real ocean
4 . Organic substances in the primordial “Broth” could exist indefinitely for
Earth due to:
A) the presence of plants
B) the presence of mushrooms
C) the presence of oxygen
D) lack of water
E) absence of bacteria and fungi
5. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) prokaryotes
B) catalysts
C) vitamins
D) coacervates
E) eukaryotes
B) Metabolism.
C) Breathing.
D) Photosynthesis.
6. The process that led to the formation of the atmosphere:
A) Reproduction.
E) Fertilization.
7. With the advent of photosynthesis, the following began to accumulate in the atmosphere:
A) Nitrogen.
B) Hydrogen.
C) Carbon.
D) Oxygen.
E) Carbon dioxide.
8. In 1953, he synthesized the simplest fatty acids and several amino acids from ammonia,
methane and hydrogen:
A) L. Pasteur.
B) F. Redi.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) V.I. Vernadsky.
9. Author of the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of life on Earth:
A) F. Redi.
B) A.I. Oparin.
C) S. Miller.
D) L. Pasteur.
E) V.I. Vernadsky.
10. Synthesized the simplest fatty acids and several amino acids from ammonia, methane and
hydrogen:
A) S. Miller
B) L. Pasteur
C) A.I. Oparin
D) V.I. Vernadsky
E) F. Redi.
11. A Florentine doctor experimentally demonstrated that spontaneous generation of flies in rotten meat
impossible:
A) F,Redi.
B) L. Pasteur.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) V.I.Vernadsky.
12. Multicellular organisms began
A) Mosses.
B) Green algae.
C) Mushrooms.
D) Ancient single-celled creatures.
E) Lichens.
13. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) Prokaryotes.
B) Catalysts.
C) Vitamins.
D) Coacervates.
E) Eukaryotes.
14. In order to experimentally test Oparin’s hypothesis, S. Miller modeled in his
flask:
A) Primary ocean.
B) Model of the Earth.
C) DNA model.
D) Aquarium.
E) A real ocean.
15. Organic substances in the primary “broth” could
exist indefinitely on Earth due to:
A) Presence of plants.
B) Presence of fungi.
C) Presence of oxygen.
D) Lack of water.
E) Absence of bacteria and fungi.
Thematic test “The emergence of life on Earth.”
Option 2
1. Contributed to the synthesis of the first organic substances on Earth from inorganic to
process of photosynthesis:
A) Low temperature.
B) High volcanic activity.
C) People.
D) Decay of volcanic activity.
E) Plants.
2. The impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms was proven by:
A) L. Pasteur.
B) S. Fox.
C) A.I. Oparin.
D) S. Miller.
E) F. Engels.
3. The first true living organisms:
A) Mushrooms.
B) Prokaryotes.
C) Animals.
D) Algae.
E) Plants.
4. Biogenesis is a theory
A) the origin of living things only from living things.
B) the historical development of the organic world.
C) individual development.
D) development of living and non-living things.
E) the development of the organism from the moment of fertilization to the moment of death.
5. The impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms was proven
A) F. Engels
B) L. Pasteur
C) A.I. Oparin
D) S. Miller
E) S. Fox
6. In the primary ocean of the Earth, clumps began to form, called:
A) prokaryotes
B) coacervates
C) vitamins
D) eukaryotes
E) catalysts
7. Within the framework of the theory of the origin of life on Earth, 2 hypotheses are most significant
A) Oogenesis, biogenesis
B) Phylogeny, abiogenesis
C) Abiogenesis, biogenesis
D) Ontogenesis, metamorphosis
E) Embryogenesis, phylogenesis
General characteristics of psychological testing
Psychological testing is a method of measuring and assessing a person's psychological characteristics using special techniques. The subject of testing can be any psychological characteristics of a person: mental processes, states, properties, relationships, etc. The basis of psychological testing is a psychological test - a standardized test system that allows you to detect and measure qualitative and quantitative individual psychological differences.
Initially, testing was considered as a type of experiment. However, to date, the specificity and independent significance of testing in psychology make it possible to distinguish it from the experiment itself.
The theory and practice of testing are generalized in independent scientific disciplines - psychological diagnostics and testology. Psychological diagnostics is the science of methods for identifying and measuring individual psychological and individual psychophysiological characteristics of a person. Thus, psychodiagnostics is an experimental psychological section of differential psychology. Testology is the science of developing and constructing tests.
The testing process typically includes three stages:
1) selection of a methodology adequate to the goals and objectives of testing;
2) testing itself, i.e. collecting data in accordance with instructions;
3) comparison of the obtained data with the “norm” or with each other and making an assessment.
Due to the presence of two ways of assessing the test, two types of psychological diagnosis are distinguished. The first type is to state the presence or absence of any sign. In this case, the data obtained about the individual characteristics of the psyche of the person being tested are correlated with some given criterion. The second type of diagnosis allows you to compare several test takers with each other and find the place of each of them on a certain “axis” depending on the degree of expression of certain qualities. To do this, all respondents are ranked according to the degree of representation of the indicator under study, high, medium, low, etc. are entered. levels of the studied features in a given sample.
Strictly speaking, a psychological diagnosis is not only the result of comparing empirical data with a test scale or with each other, but also the result of a qualified interpretation, taking into account many factors involved (the mental state of the person being tested, his readiness to perceive tasks and report on his indicators, the testing situation, etc. ).
Psychological tests especially clearly demonstrate the connection between the research method and the methodological views of the psychologist. For example, depending on the preferred theory of personality, the researcher selects the type of personality questionnaire.
The use of tests is an integral feature of modern psychodiagnostics. Several areas of practical use of the results of psychodiagnostics can be distinguished: the field of training and education, the field of professional selection and career guidance, advisory and psychotherapeutic practice, and, finally, the field of expertise - medical, judicial, etc.
The emergence and development of the testing method
The emergence of the testing method, as mentioned above, occurred at the end of the 19th century. based on the development of experimental methods for studying mental phenomena. The ability to quantitatively assess mental phenomena and compare on this basis the results of different subjects with each other led to the rapid development of the testing method. At the same time, knowledge about the individual psychological characteristics of people was accumulated.
The differential psychological study of man was formed not only as a consequence of the development of experimental psychology. Differential psychology “grew up” from the tasks facing medical and pedagogical practice, where there was a great need to differentiate between mentally ill and mentally retarded people.
The development of psychological tests was carried out in many European countries and in the USA. Initially, ordinary laboratory experiments were used as tests, but the meaning of their use was different. These experiments did not study differences in the subject's reactions to different stimuli, but individual differences in the subject's reactions under constant experimental conditions.
In 1905, the first intellectual test corresponding to the modern understanding of tests appeared. By order of the French Ministry of Education, French psychologist A. Binet developed an intelligence test to identify mentally handicapped children who are not able to study in regular schools. In 1907, this test was improved by compatriot A. Binet T. Simon and was called the Binet-Simon mental development scale. The developed scale contained 30 tasks, arranged according to the degree of increasing difficulty. For example, for a three-year-old child it was required: 1) show his eyes, nose, mouth; 2) repeat a sentence up to six words long; 3) repeat two numbers from memory; 4) name the drawn objects; 5) state your last name. If the child solved all the tasks, he was offered tasks of a higher age level. Tasks were considered appropriate for a certain age level if they were performed correctly by the majority (80-90%) of children of a given age.
The Binet-Simon scale in subsequent editions (1908 and 1911) was translated into English and German. In these editions, the age range was expanded - up to 13 years, the number of tasks was increased and the concept of mental age was introduced. Mental age was determined by the success of completing test tasks in the following way: first, the child was offered tasks corresponding to his chronological age. If he coped with all the tasks, he was offered tasks of the next higher age group. If he did not complete the tasks of his age group, he was offered tasks of the previous younger age group. The basic mental age was considered to be the one for which all tasks were completed by the child. If the child performed, in addition to them, some tasks from the subsequent older age, then several “mental months” were added to his basic mental age.
In 1912, the German psychologist W. Stern introduced the concept of intelligence quotient (10), defined as the ratio of mental age to chronological age, expressed as a percentage.
The improvement of A. Binet's scale was continued at Stanford University (USA) under the leadership of the American psychologist L.M. Theremin. In 1916, a new, standardized version of this scale was proposed, which became known as the Stanford-Binet scale. It had two significant differences from previous editions. Firstly, it used the IQ, and secondly, it introduced the concept of a statistical norm. For each age, the most typical average test performance score was 100, and the statistical measure of spread, the standard deviation, was 16. Thus, all individual results ranging from 84 to 116 were considered normal. If the test score was above 116, the child was considered gifted, if below 84, the child was considered mentally retarded. The Stanford-Binet scale subsequently had several more editions (1937, 1960, 1972, 1986). Newly created intelligence tests are still tested for validity by comparison with the results of this scale.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the development of testing was also determined by the demands of industry and the army. Tests were created for selection in various branches of production and the service sector (Münsterberg tests for the professional selection of telephone operators, Friedrich tests for the selection of mechanics, Guth tests for typesetters, etc.), as well as for the distribution of recruits by branch of the military (tests “Army Alpha” and “Army Beta"). This led to the advent of group testing. Subsequently, army tests were used for civilian purposes.
In the first half of the 20th century. A number of techniques have appeared aimed at differential diagnosis of various types of pathology. The German psychiatrist E. Kraepelin continued the work of F. Galton on the technique of free associations. Subsequently, the associative experiment was transformed into the “incomplete sentence method”, which is widely used to this day. In 1921, the Swiss psychiatrist G. Rorschach created the “inkblot test,” which is one of the most popular projective techniques.
In 1935, American psychologists H. Morgan and G. Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which currently has many modifications. At the same time, the theoretical foundations for constructing tests were developed, and methods of mathematical and statistical processing were improved. Correlation and factor analysis appeared (C. Spearman, T.L. Keeley, L. L. Thurston, etc.). This allowed the development of test standardization principles, which made it possible to create consistent test batteries. As a result, methods were proposed based on the factorial principle (R. Cattell's 16PF questionnaire, etc.), and new intelligence tests (1936 - J. Raven's test, 1949 - D. Wechsler's test, 1953 - Amthauer's test ). At the same time, occupational selection tests (GATB battery for the US Army in 1957) and clinical tests (MMPI questionnaire in the 1940s) were improved.
In 1950-1960 There have been important changes in the ideology of testing. If earlier tests were aimed at screening, selecting, typing people into various categories, then in the 1950-1960s. psychodiagnostics addressed the needs and problems of the individual. A huge number of personality questionnaires have appeared, the purpose of which is to gain in-depth knowledge of the individual and identify its characteristics (questionnaires by G. Eysenck, etc.).
A significant number of special ability and achievement tests have been created in response to requests from industry and education. In the middle of the 20th century, criterion-referenced tests appeared.
Currently, psychologists have more than ten thousand test methods in their arsenal.
Related information.
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | Test method |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Psychology |
Today the method is widely used testing, which was once underestimated in domestic science and practice. Now psychologists have several thousand tests at their disposal.
Test(English test - sample, check) - a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of personality qualities (properties). Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination. They differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data and their unique subsequent interpretation
The popularity of this method is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compile research results, which is primarily extremely important for solving practical problems.
One of the earliest attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). The tests and static methods proposed by F. Galton were later used to solve practical problems of life and served as the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”. This term entered the lexicon of scientists after the publication of an article by D. Cattell (1860-1944). “Psychology,” writes Cattell in this article, “will not be able to become strong and accurate, like the physical sciences, if it is not based on experiment and measurement. A step in this direction must be taken by applying a series of mental tests to a large number of people. The results may have significant scientific value in the discovery of the constancy of mental processes, their interdependence and measurements in different circumstances.
In 1905 ᴦ. French psychologist A. Biné created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence.
Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them.
During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread.
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Thus, in the USA, military authorities turned to the country's leading psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of applying psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly launched work in this direction.
The development of tests as a psychological method was also carried out in Russia. The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), as well as P. F. Lesgafta (1837-1909).
A particularly notable contribution to the development of test methods was made by G. I. Rossolimo. To diagnose individual mental properties, he developed a method for their quantitative assessment, which gives a holistic picture of the personality. The technique made it possible to evaluate 11 mental processes, which, in turn, were divided into five groups: attention, receptivity, will, memorization, associative processes (imagination and thinking).
Today tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. Many testing methods bear the names of their authors, for example, the Eysenck test, the Rorchard test, the Rosen-Zweig test, the Raven test, Koss cubes, etc.
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This once again emphasizes the main feature of the tests, when their content and method of use reflect the author’s psychological theory and worldview. All this allows, with the help of tests, to identify the necessary parameters of mental reality, pose psychodiagnostic questions in relation to them and successfully solve them. It is also extremely important to note the fact that tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This leads to a variety of test methods.
There are various test options: questionnaire test, task test, projective tests.
Test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-thought-out, carefully selected and tested questions from the point of view of their validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.
Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of completing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of completed tasks is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.
At the core projective tests lies the mechanism of projection, according to which a person tends to attribute unconscious personal qualities (especially shortcomings) to other people. This category of tests does not use the subjects’ self-reports, but assumes a free interpretation by the researcher of the tasks performed by the subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is shown pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche.
The test questionnaire and test task are applicable to people of different ages, belonging to different cultures, having different levels of education, different professions and different life experiences. This is their positive side. The disadvantage is that when using tests, the subject can consciously influence the results obtained at will, especially if he knows in advance how the test is structured and how he will be assessed based on the results obtained. At the same time, the test questionnaire and test task are not applicable in cases where psychological properties and characteristics are to be studied, the existence of which the subject should not be completely sure of, is not aware of, or does not consciously want to admit their presence in himself. Such characteristics are, for example, many negative personal qualities and motives of behavior.
In these cases, the third type of test is usually used - projective. It should be pointed out that projective type tests place increased demands on the level of education and intellectual maturity of the test takers, and this is the main practical limitation of their applicability. At the same time, such tests require a lot of special training and high professional qualifications on the part of the psychologist himself.
When using tests, there are various forms of presenting test material: blank, instrumental, procedural.
Blank These are the forms in which the test subject receives test material in the form of various forms: drawings, diagrams, tables, questionnaires, etc.
IN hardware forms, various technical means, various types of equipment are used to present and process test results, for example, audio and video equipment, electronic computers.
By using procedural forms, any psychological or behavioral process is studied, and as a result it is given an accurate qualitative or quantitative characteristic, for example, the process of a person memorizing material, the process of interpersonal interaction of individuals in a group.
At the same time, despite their great popularity in use, the value of tests cannot be absolutized and replaced with other types of studying the human psyche. Limitations in the use of tests are due to the following.
1. The test is used to assess one or another mental quality of a person, as a rule, without connection with real activity. At the same time, mental qualities do not exist in a “pure” form. These qualities are always connected with the goals and conditions of a person’s activity, with other mental qualities, with the characteristics of the individual as a whole. This connection is taken into account very weakly in test trials.
2. With the help of tests, they usually try to determine (for example, during professional selection) the level of development of certain mental qualities in a particular person. At the same time, for these purposes, it is necessary not so much to know the level of qualities achieved at the time of testing, but to predict the possibilities of their change in the process of training and work. In other words, for the purposes of professional training, it is more important to know not the actual, but the potential level of a person’s capabilities and abilities. Tests practically do not provide an answer to this question.
For this reason, testing should be approached with great caution; in no case should they replace other types of psychological research of a person. Moreover, in combination with other methods, test data can provide very valuable material for studying the psychological qualities of a person.
Test method - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Test Method" 2017, 2018.
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Plan
1. The emergence of testing
2. Classification of tests
3. Testing stages
4. General testing rules
5. Benefits
6. Disadvantages
7. Requirements for a psychologist conducting testing
8. Personality questionnaires
9. Exercise "The Magnificent Seven"
1. The emergence of testing
The history of psychodiagnostics is both the history of the emergence of basic psychodiagnostic methods and the development of approaches to their creation based on the evolution of views about the nature and functioning of the psyche. In this regard, it is interesting to trace how some important psychodiagnostic methods were formed within the framework of the main schools of psychology.
Test methods associated with the theoretical principles of behaviorism. The methodological concept of behaviorism was based on the fact that there are deterministic relationships between the organism and the environment. The body, reacting to environmental stimuli, strives to change the situation in a direction favorable to itself and adapts to it. Behaviorism introduced into psychology the leading category of behavior, understanding it as a set of reactions to stimuli accessible to objective observation. Behavior, according to the behaviorist concept, is the only object of study of psychology, and all internal mental processes must be interpreted by objectively observable behavioral reactions. In accordance with these ideas, the purpose of diagnosis was initially reduced to recording behavior. This is exactly what the first psychodiagnosticians did, who developed the test method (the term was introduced by F. Galton).
The first researcher to use the concept of “intelligence test” in psychological experimentation was J. Cattell . This term became widely known after J. Cattell's article “Intelligence Tests and Measurements,” published in 1890 in the journal Mind. In his article, J. Cattell wrote that applying a series of tests to a large number of individuals will make it possible to discover the patterns of mental processes and thereby lead to the transformation of psychology into an exact science. At the same time, he expressed the idea that the scientific and practical value of the tests would increase if the conditions for their conduct were uniform. Thus, for the first time, the need to standardize tests was proclaimed in order to make it possible to compare their results obtained by different researchers on different subjects.
J. Cattell proposed 50 tests as a sample, including various types of measurements:
Sensitivity;
Reaction time;
Time spent naming colors;
Time spent naming the number of sounds reproduced after a single listening, etc.
He used these tests in the laboratory he set up at Columbia University (1891). Following J. Cattell, other American laboratories began to use the test method. There was a need to organize special coordination centers for the use of this method. In 1895-1896 In the USA, two national committees were created to unite the efforts of testologists and give a general direction to testological work.
Initially, ordinary experimental psychological tests were used as tests. In form they were similar to laboratory research techniques, but the meaning of their use was fundamentally different. After all, the task of a psychological experiment is to clarify the dependence of a mental act on external and internal factors, for example, the nature of perception from external stimuli, memorization - from the frequency and distribution of repetitions, etc.
During testing, the psychologist records individual differences in mental acts, assessing the results obtained using some criterion and in no case changing the conditions for the implementation of these mental acts.
A new step in the development of the test method was made by a French doctor and psychologist A. Binet (1857-1911), creator of the most popular at the beginning of the 20th century. series of intellectual tests. Before A. Binet, as a rule, differences in sensorimotor qualities were tested - sensitivity, reaction speed, etc. But practice required information about higher mental functions, usually designated by the terms “mind”, “intelligence”. It is these functions that ensure the acquisition of knowledge and the successful implementation of complex adaptive activities.
The reason why A. Binet, together with T. Simon, began to develop the first intellectual test in the history of psychodiagnostics was a practical request - the need to create a technique with which it was possible to separate children capable of learning from those suffering from congenital defects and incapable of learning in a normal school.
First series of tests - Binet-Simon scale (Binet-Simon Intelligence Development Echelle) appeared in 1905. Then it was revised several times by the authors, who sought to remove from it all tasks requiring special training.
Items in the Binet scales were grouped by age (from 3 to 13 years). Specific tests were selected for each age. They were considered appropriate for a given age level if they were solved by the majority of children of a given age (80-90%). The indicator of intelligence in the Binet scales was mental age, which could diverge from chronological age. Mental age was determined by the level of tasks that the child could solve. If, for example, a child whose chronological age is 3 years solves all the problems for 4-year-old children, then the mental age of this 3-year-old child was recognized as 4 years. A discrepancy between mental and chronological age was considered an indicator of either mental retardation (if mental age is below chronological) or giftedness (if mental age is above chronological).
Second edition of the Binet scale served as the basis for verification and standardization work carried out at Stanford University (USA) by a team of employees led by L.M. Theremin (1877-1956). The first adaptation of the Binet test scale was proposed in 1916 and had so many serious changes compared to the main one that it was called Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale(Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale). There were two main innovations compared to the Binet tests:
1) introduction of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) as an indicator for the test, derived from the relationship between mental and chronological ages;
2) application of a test evaluation criterion, for which the concept of a statistical norm was introduced.
The Stanford-Binet scale is designed for children aged 2.5 to 18 years. It consisted of tasks of varying difficulty, grouped according to age criteria. For each age, the most typical, average performance indicator was equal to 100, and the statistical measure of dispersion, the deviation of individual values from this average (o) was equal to 16. All individual indicators on the test that fell into the interval x + o, i.e., limited by numbers 84 and 116 were considered normal, corresponding to the age norm of performance. If the test score was above the test norm (more than 116), the child was considered gifted, and if below 84, then mentally retarded. The Stanford-Binet scale has gained popularity all over the world. It had several editions (1937, 1960, 1972, 1986). In the latest edition, it is still used today. The IQ score, obtained on the Stanford-Binet scale, has become synonymous with intelligence for many years. The newly created intelligence tests began to be tested by comparison with the results of the Stanford-Binet scale.
The next stage in the development of psychological testing is characterized by changing the form of the test test. All tests created in the first decade of the 20th century were individual and allowed experiments with only one subject. They could only be used by specially trained psychologists with sufficiently high qualifications.
These features of the first tests limited their distribution. Practice required diagnosing large masses of people in order to select those most prepared for a particular type of activity, as well as distribute people into different types of activity in accordance with their individual characteristics. Therefore, in the United States during the First World War, a new form of testing appeared - group testing. psychodiagnostics personality testing behaviorism
The need to select and distribute an army of one and a half million recruits to various services, schools and colleges as quickly as possible forced a specially created committee to entrust L. Theremin’s student L.S. Otis (1886-1963) development of new tests. This is how two forms of army tests appeared - Alpha (Army Alpha) and Beta (Army Beta). The first of them was intended to work with people who know English. The second is for the illiterate and foreigners. After the end of the war, these tests and their modifications continued to be widely used. Group (collective) tests not only made testing large groups real, but at the same time allowed for simplification of instructions, procedures for conducting and evaluating test results. People began to be involved in testing who did not have real psychological qualifications, but were only trained to conduct test tests.
While individual tests such as the Stanford-Binet scales have been used primarily in clinical and counseling settings, group tests have been used primarily in education, industry, and the military.
The twenties of the last century were characterized by a real test boom. The rapid and widespread spread of testology was due, first of all, to its focus on quickly solving practical problems.
Measuring intelligence using tests was seen as a means of allowing a scientific, rather than a purely empirical approach to issues of training, professional selection, assessment of achievements, etc.
During the first half of the 20th century. Experts in the field of psychological diagnostics have created a wide variety of tests. At the same time, developing the methodological side of the tests, they brought it to truly high perfection. All tests were carefully standardized on large samples; testologists ensured that all of them were highly reliable and had good validity.
Validation reveals limitations of intelligence tests: predicting on their basis the success of specific, fairly narrow types of activities has often not been achieved. In addition to knowledge of the level of general intelligence, additional information about the characteristics of the human psyche was required. A new direction in testology arose - testing of special abilities, which at first was intended only to complement the assessments of intelligence tests, and later became an independent field.
Impetus for development special ability tests There was a powerful development of professional consulting, as well as professional selection and placement of personnel in industry and military affairs. Tests of mechanical, clerical, musical, and artistic abilities began to appear. Test batteries (sets) were created to select applicants to medical, legal, engineering and other educational institutions.
Developed complex batteries abilities for use in counseling and personnel placement. The most famous among them are the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) and the Special Aptitude Test Battery (SATB), developed by the US Employment Service for use by consultants in government agencies. Tests and batteries of special abilities, while differing in composition and methodological qualities, are similar in one thing - they are characterized by low differential validity. Students choosing different fields of education or professional activity differ slightly in their test profiles.
The theoretical basis for the construction of complex ability batteries was the use of a special technique for processing data on individual differences and correlations between them - factor analysis . Factor analysis made it possible to more accurately define and classify what were called special abilities.
The modern understanding of factor analysis makes some changes to its interpretation, which was in the 20-40s. XX century Factor analysis is the highest level of linear correlations. But linear correlations cannot be considered a universal form of expressing the mathematical connection between mental processes. Consequently, the absence of linear correlations cannot be interpreted as the absence of a connection at all, and the same applies to low correlation coefficients. Therefore, factor analysis and the factors obtained through this analysis do not always correctly reflect the dependencies between mental processes.
But perhaps the main thing that is in doubt is the understanding of the so-called special abilities. These abilities are interpreted not as individual characteristics that arose as a product of the influence of society’s demands on the individual, but as characteristics inherent in a given individual psyche. This interpretation gives rise to a lot of logical difficulties. In fact, where did the modern individual suddenly develop and manifest such abilities that previous generations had no idea about? One cannot think that the psyche contains abilities suitable for all future social demands. But the technique of factor analysis takes these abilities as a given; they are in fact mental formations that are in dynamics.
The foregoing convinces us that the possibilities of factor analysis and its factors should be treated with great caution and not considered this analysis as a universal tool for studying the psyche.
Along with tests of intelligence, special and complex abilities, another type of test has emerged that is widely used in educational institutions - achievement tests . Unlike intelligence tests, they reflect not so much the influence of diverse accumulated experience as the influence of special training programs on the effectiveness of solving test tasks. The history of the development of these tests can be traced from the moment the Boston School changed the oral form of examinations to a written one (1845). In America, achievement tests have been used in the selection of employees for civil service since 1872, and since 1883 their use has become regular. The most significant development of elements of technology for constructing achievement tests was carried out during the First World War and immediately after it.
Achievement tests are among the largest group of diagnostic techniques. One of the most famous and widely used achievement tests is the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT), first published in 1923. It assesses the level of learning in different classes in secondary schools. A significant number of tests of special abilities and achievements were created under the influence of practical demands from industry and economics. They were used for professional selection and professional counseling. Further development of achievement tests led to the emergence in the middle of the 20th century. criterion-referenced tests.
2. Classification of tests
Undoubtedly, the most popular methods nowadays are tests. What is a test?
In psychodiagnostics, a test is a test, a test, a short-term, standardized task that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain psychological quality of an individual. Tests allow you to obtain individual psychological characteristics of a person according to certain parameters in a short time.
Depending on the methods of presenting the material and the test aids, various types of tests are distinguished. There are tests performed:
* individually and in groups;
* orally and in writing;
* verbally and non-verbally.
Verbal tests are carried out in verbal-logical form, non-verbal tests are presented in drawings, graphs, pictures.
There are tests:
* intelligence;
* abilities;
* achievements;
* personality tests.
Modern business life poses the task of measuring variables of varying degrees of complexity that characterize a person’s inner world. The areas of application of both professional and popular psychological tests can be outlined as follows:
1) self-knowledge tests - form an objective assessment of personal and business qualities, correct stereotypes of perception of oneself and other people, determine goals and means of professional growth;
2) tests for assessing relationships with loved ones - allow you to assess the need for belonging and love, to feel protected;
3) tests for assessing the psychological problems of the team - they allow you to determine the degree of conflict in the team, leadership style, and analyze production situations.
Intelligence tests are designed to measure a person's level of intellectual development. Since the time of the first intelligence tests, the concept of intelligence has undergone various changes from approaches to testing intelligence as a mental reality. Intelligence is more often understood as a set of cognitive abilities. Intelligence tests consist of several subtests aimed at measuring intellectual functions (logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, etc.). The level of intelligence is not a constant value and changes under the influence of the environment; it is a reflection of both previous and subsequent achievements in learning. Intelligence is not a single and monotonous ability; it consists of several functions. This term usually refers to a set of abilities necessary for survival and achievement in a particular culture.
Abilities are the individual psychological characteristics of a person that contribute to his success in any activity. Abilities are manifested in activity, formed in activity, and exist in relation to a specific activity. There are general and specific abilities. General and specific are divided into elementary and complex.
3. Testing stages
Knowledge of the general rules and recommendations of testing, as well as the qualities that a professional testing-teacher should have, will make it possible to competently carry out this procedure in practice. In the process of preparing and conducting testing, one can highlight four main stages , taking into account the features of which largely determines the success of using this method:
1. Selection of test methods. Before doing this, you need to carefully familiarize yourself with the available test methods and check how they correspond to the objectives of the study and are convenient for use. Then the tester tests the chosen technique on himself or, in extreme cases, on another person.
2. Instructing subjects. Once you are convinced of the suitability of the methodology, you should instruct the subjects in detail, explain to them the goals and objectives of testing, the procedure for completing test tasks and behavior during their implementation, and emphasize the need for utmost sincerity when answering questions. Concerns that test results could be used to compromise subjects in any way should be dispelled. To do this, we can remind you about the confidentiality of information received from subjects on the basis of “personal trust” or in sociometric tests, about access to it only by those for whom it is intended. If testing is anonymous, then this must also be publicly announced. During training work with subjects, it is necessary to explain to them that analysis of test results (including behavior in a business game) is not related to the ethical or business assessment of the student, but serves educational purposes, overcoming certain behavioral weaknesses, and personal development.
3. Monitoring the completion of tasks. During the testing process, the organizer ensures that the subjects work independently and do not help or interfere with each other. Clarifying questions about the testing procedure are asked directly to the tester. It is not recommended to interrupt the work of the subjects or distract them to perform any other procedure. When using tests as part of broad diagnostic programs (for example, as part of the “personnel assessment center” method), it is advisable to observe how the participants work while performing the tests. This allows you to collect additional information about the psychological and business qualities of the subjects.
4. Interpretation of results and summing up testing. Each test method contains instructions for processing and interpreting test results. The tester must read these instructions in advance (or repeat them before testing). When using testing in educational and training work (with students, managers, etc.), it is important to prepare preliminary recommendations in advance for groups with similar results. Recommendations should be given taking into account the individual characteristics of students in the correct form. If the test results allow this, then the recommendations should contain proposals for choosing forms of business behavior (for example, profession, career, etc.), as well as indicate the ways of self-education, self-education, self-organization, self-development of the test subject.
4. General testing rules
To avoid ethical and other problems and obtain objective results, general testing rules that must be followed by any professional users of test methods help. These are the following rules:
1. Any complex testing must be carried out with the participation of a psychodiagnostic specialist or with his subsequent participation as a consultant who has completed a special training course and certification procedure. Standardized, theoretically and psychometrically well-founded methods can be used not only by practical psychologists, but also by managers and other leaders, sociologists, teachers, doctors, etc. who are literate in the field of psychodiagnostics. Any user of a test methodology must automatically take responsibility for compliance with all requirements of professional secrecy and ethics and strive to exclude the possibility of incorrect use of tests. Incorrect conclusions and recommendations based on the results of testing, unethical behavior of its organizer can only discredit the testing method in the eyes of both the subjects and the organization’s management.
2. A person cannot be subjected to psychological examination fraudulently or against his will. No forms of direct or indirect coercion or violation of individual rights are acceptable (exceptions can only be cases from judicial or psychoneurological practice).
3. Before testing, the subject must be warned that during the study he may unwittingly provide information about himself, his thoughts and feelings that he himself is not aware of.
4. Any person, except as otherwise provided by law, has the right to know the results of his or her testing. The final data in an understandable form is provided to the subjects by the person who conducted the examination. Familiarization with the test results should exclude their misinterpretation or the emergence of any concerns among the subjects. At the same time, the tester must emphasize that the testing conclusions are probabilistic in nature and are relatively reliable only if the test is carried out correctly and the subjects are completely frank. This probability depends on the specific test method and, with proper organization of the testing procedure, ranges from 60 to 80%.
5. When testing minors (primarily students), their parents or their substitutes have the right to know the results. Working with this category of subjects requires special care and responsibility when choosing test methods, informing subjects and/or their parents about the test results and giving them recommendations.
6. Test results should not injure the person being tested and/or reduce his self-esteem. Therefore, they should be communicated to the subject in an encouraging manner, accompanied, if possible, by constructive recommendations.
7. The subject must be informed about the purposes of testing and the forms of use of its results. So, if the purpose of testing is to determine the level of mental development of a person during competitive selection or when hiring, then the test subject has the right to know not only about the purpose of testing, but also about who, where and what decision can be made on its basis.
8. The tester must ensure an impartial approach to the procedure and results of the study. Communication with the test subject should be friendly and neutral, excluding any assistance during the testing process, except that which serves the subject’s correct understanding of the instructions.
9. Information about test results should be provided only to those for whom it is intended. The tester is obliged to ensure the confidentiality of psychodiagnostic information received from the subject on the basis of “personal trust” or in sociometric tests. When talking with a subject based on test results, the presence of unauthorized persons should be excluded. No one other than the subject and the tester has the right of access to the test results presented in written form. To prevent the leakage of psychodiagnostic information or its misuse, access to it by any persons, including teaching staff and the administration of an institution or educational institution, must be prohibited. Psychodiagnostic information may be communicated to appropriate persons only upon special request or in cases provided for by the legislation on forensic medical examination.
10. The tester is obliged to maintain professional secrets: not to transfer instructional materials to random persons, not to reveal to potential test subjects the secret of a particular psychodiagnostic technique.
These rules must be taken into account in any professional testing. Of course, when using testing for educational purposes: determining the level of knowledge acquisition, diagnosing the degree of communication skills with subsequent training in business communication, etc. - with the consent of the participants, some deviation from the above rules is possible, for example, public summing up and open discussion of ways of self-improvement and development of students or managers improving their qualifications.
Compared to other forms of knowledge control, testing has its advantages and disadvantages.
5. Benefits
Testing is a higher quality and objective method of assessment; its objectivity is achieved by standardizing the procedure, checking the quality indicators of tasks and tests as a whole.
· Testing- a more equitable method, it puts all students on equal terms, both in the control process and in the assessment process, practically eliminating the subjectivity of the teacher. According to the English association NEAB, which deals with the final assessment of students in the UK, testing can reduce the number of appeals by more than three times, making the assessment procedure the same for all students, regardless of place of residence, type and type of educational institution in which students study.
· Tests are a more voluminous tool, since testing can include tasks on all topics of the course, while the oral exam usually includes 2-4 topics, and the written exam - 3-5. This allows you to identify the student’s knowledge throughout the course, eliminating the element of chance when pulling out a ticket. With the help of testing, you can establish the student’s level of knowledge in the subject as a whole and in its individual sections.
· A test is a more accurate tool, for example, a test rating scale of 20 questions consists of 20 divisions, while a regular knowledge rating scale has only four divisions.
· Testing is more cost effective. The main costs during testing are related to the development of high-quality tools, that is, they are one-time in nature. The costs of conducting the test are significantly lower than with written or oral control. Conducting testing and monitoring the results in a group of 30 people takes one and a half two hours, an oral or written exam takes at least four hours.
· Testing is a softer tool; they put all students on an equal footing, using a single procedure and uniform assessment criteria, which leads to a reduction in pre-exam nervous tension.
6. Disadvantages
· Development of high-quality test tools is a long, labor-intensive and expensive process.
· The data obtained by the teacher as a result of testing, although it includes information about knowledge gaps in specific sections, does not allow us to judge the reasons for these gaps.
· The test does not test and evaluate high, productive levels of knowledge associated with creativity, that is, probabilistic, abstract and methodological knowledge.
· The breadth of coverage of topics in testing also has a downside. When testing, a student, unlike an oral or written exam, does not have enough time for any in-depth analysis of the topic.
· Ensuring the objectivity and fairness of the test requires taking special measures to ensure the confidentiality of test tasks. When reusing the test, it is advisable to make changes to the tasks.
· There is an element of randomness in testing. For example, a student who does not answer a simple question may give the correct answer to a more difficult one. The reason for this could be either a random error in the first question or guessing the answer in the second. This distorts the test results and leads to the need to take into account the probabilistic component when analyzing them.
7. RequirementsTopsychologist conductingtesting
A consulting psychologist, to call a person who is quite professionally, responsibly and at a high level engaged in psychological counseling, can only become a person who has a general and special higher psychological education and, in addition, sufficient practical experience in the role of a consulting psychologist. , highly appreciated by experts and confirmed by the appropriate certificate. Let us explain this in more detail. General higher psychological education is the education that a specialist receives after successfully graduating from a psychological faculty or department of a higher educational institution - a university or institute. Special psychological education is an education that involves specialization in one of the areas of psychological science and practice. Such double education is necessary for a counseling psychologist in order to engage in counseling on a modern scientific basis and with a deep practical understanding of the matter, being able to answer, in particular, the following questions:
What is the psychology of the modern client?
What is currently happening with the client who actually turned to psychological counseling for help?
Why does this client need these particular recommendations and not some other recommendations?
How to explain to the client on a scientific basis the significance of these specific recommendations?
The answers to all these questions given by the consulting psychologist must be understandable to the client and convincing enough for professional psychologists.
Special practical education is the type of psychological education that is associated with the practical activities of a psychologist-consultant, with his mastering the methods of psychological work with people seeking help from psychological counseling. We are talking, first of all, about scientifically based methods of work that are taught at special faculties where practical psychologists with higher education are trained. A psychologist-consultant needs quite a lot of experience in practical work because he has to deal not with science or teaching psychology, but with very real and often quite complex life problems of people. The knowledge acquired at a university does not turn into skills without practical work experience.
Without exception, all the subtleties of the practical work of a psychologist-consultant, all possible situations that he may encounter in life, cannot be foreseen in advance and the corresponding disciplines cannot be included in the university training curriculum. Therefore, practical experience as a consultant psychologist is essential in any case.
All of the above is extremely important for the normal professional work of a consulting psychologist. In addition to knowledge and skills, a consulting psychologist must have a number of special personal qualities. For example, he must love people, be able to understand and feel their condition without words, be kind, patient, sociable and responsible. To this list one could easily add the words once said about the consulting psychologist by the famous specialist in this field, R. Mey. A consulting psychologist, he wrote, must be able to attract people to himself, feel free in any society, and be capable of empathy. The main thing for a real psychologist-consultant is “benevolence and the desire to understand the client, help him see himself from the best side and realize his worth as an individual.”
The system of general, professional, moral and ethical requirements for psychological counseling and the practical work of a consulting psychologist is best reflected in the existing codes of professional ethics for practical psychologists. Many provisions of these codes are directly applicable to the work of a counseling psychologist. Let us remind you of these provisions by including in their wording instead of the word “psychologist” the phrase “consulting psychologist”.
1. The professional activity of a consulting psychologist is characterized by his special responsibility to the client for the recommendations that he offers to the client.
2. The practical activities of a consulting psychologist must be based on appropriate moral, ethical and legal foundations.
3. The activities of a psychologist-consultant are aimed at achieving exclusively humane goals, which involve the removal of any restrictions on the path of intellectual and personal (personal) development of the client.
4. A psychologist-consultant builds his work on the basis of unconditional respect for the dignity and inviolability of the client’s personality. The counseling psychologist respects fundamental human rights as defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
5. When working with clients, a psychologist-consultant is guided by the principles of honesty and openness (sincerity). At the same time, he must be careful in giving advice and recommendations to the client.
6. A consulting psychologist is obliged to inform colleagues and members of his professional associations about violations of the client’s rights that he notices, about cases of inhumane treatment of clients.
7. A consulting psychologist has the right to provide only such services to clients for which he has the necessary education, qualifications, knowledge and skills.
8. In his work, a consulting psychologist must use only proven methods that meet modern general scientific standards.
9. An obligatory part of the work of a consulting psychologist is the constant maintenance of one’s professional knowledge and skills at a high level.
10. In the case of forced use of psychological methods and recommendations that have not been sufficiently tested and do not fully meet scientific requirements, the consulting psychologist must warn his clients about this and be very careful in his conclusions.
11. A consulting psychologist has no right to disclose or transfer to third parties data about his clients or the results of counseling.
12. A consulting psychologist is obliged to prevent the use of methods of psychological counseling and psychological influence on people by incompetent persons, professionally untrained people, and also to warn about this those who use the services of such “specialists”.
13. A consulting psychologist does not have the right to transfer methods of psychological work with clients to incompetent persons.
14. The consulting psychologist should be careful not to create unreasonable hopes and expectations on the part of the client, not to give him promises, advice and recommendations that cannot be fulfilled.
15. The consulting psychologist is personally responsible for keeping information concerning clients confidential.
Compliance with all these rules or ethical standards is mandatory in the practical work of a consulting psychologist.
In addition, there are a number of significant differences between a good, professionally trained consulting psychologist and a bad, not fully professionally trained one. These differences relate to how the psychologist-consultant behaves towards the client in different situations of psychological counseling, how he gets out of difficult cases that often arise in the process of psychological counseling. Table 1 below includes a comparison of ten characteristics of the behavior of a good and a bad consulting psychologist.
8. Personality questionnaires
Personality questionnaires are the most common type of test. Consist of a certain number (from 10 to 600) questions or statements. They are accompanied by answer options: “yes”, “no”, “I don’t know” - for example. No self-respecting questionnaire contains only one scale. That is, it does not reveal, for example, just whether you are a “night owl” or “lark,” or just your level of sociability. Typically, the questionnaire contains 3-16 scales, but their number can even reach 200!
Don't try to be completely honest with a personality questionnaire. Many self-confident people answer questions as honestly as possible, trying to demonstrate themselves in all their glory, but then it turns out that they turned out to be not so good. Why? Because any questionnaire is “tuned” to the average, to a person who embellishes himself the questionnaire makes allowances for the average person’s natural desire to embellish himself. Therefore, embellish yourself too. Just don't overdo it!
9. Uexercise"The Magnificent Seven"
If you don’t even know by what criteria you will be selected and eliminated, then keep in mind the following seven human qualities:
1. Intelligence (who needs a stupid employee or cadet?!)
2. Honesty (chief accountants, as a rule, this does not concern)
3. Sociability (even spies have to be sociable!)
4. Organizational skills (if you are selected using psychological tests, this means that most likely you will sooner or later have a chance to command - fact!)
5. Balance, emotional stability (predictability of an employee’s behavior is very important for a boss)
6. Rationality (You must use your working time effectively)
7. Internality (you attribute your mistakes to yourself, are able to make constructive organizational conclusions, strive for personal growth)
Personality questionnaires help identify a person’s preferred style of behavior at work. This is a critical element in ensuring a person's suitability for the job.
The SHL family of Occupational Personality Questionnaires (OPQ) is available in more than 20 languages and has an unparalleled international research base. The OPQ is one of the most widely used psychometric assessment methods used in the world today.
The questionnaire provides an opportunity to obtain detailed information regarding how well candidates fit into a specific work environment and how they will work with others. In addition, the OPQ results make it possible to compare the employee’s personal potential and the requirements for the employee’s work behavior within the framework of competencies.
The information obtained through the questionnaire allows you to make various decisions in the field of human resource management. This applies to both the initial selection of candidates and its use for the purpose of assessing and developing existing employees.
The questionnaire provides information about the candidate's strengths and weaknesses in terms of the position or position in a form that is accessible and understandable to functional managers. Questionnaire results are also often used as background information and structure for conducting interviews. Also, a professional personality questionnaire is one of the integral procedures of the Assessment and Development Centers.
By assessing an employee using a questionnaire at the selection stage, organizations receive significant benefits by saving time and money. Increased productivity and reduced costs through increased efficiency of the selection process are just some of the possible benefits.
Personality assessment methods (personality questionnaires) can be used in real time (using the SHLTools Internet system) or on paper.
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The first stage The use of tests in world practice can be considered the period from the 80s. XIX century to the 20s. XX century This is the period of the birth and development of testing. The theoretical foundations of testing were laid in the mid-80s. XIX century English psychologist and naturalist F. Galton, who suggested that with the help of tests it will be possible to separate the factors of heredity and environmental influences in the human psyche.
F. Galton's important contribution to the development of test theory was the definition of three basic principles that are still used today:
1) applying a series of identical tests to a large number of subjects;
2) statistical processing of results;
3) identification of evaluation standards.
F. Galton called the tests carried out in his laboratory mental tests. At the same time, this term gained the greatest popularity after the publication of the article James McKean CattellʼʼMental Tests and Measurementsʼʼ, published in 1890.
The French psychologist made a huge contribution to the development of testology Alfred Biné. He can be considered the founder of modern tests designed to diagnose the level of intelligence development. Subsequently, he and the Parisian doctor T. Simon the concept of “mental age” and the corresponding metric scale are introduced (1908). So, in the first decade of the 20th century. The well-known Bien-Simon test was introduced into practice, the main task of which was to identify mentally retarded children and then send them to special schools.
For quite a long time, tests have been developing as a tool for individual measurements. The massive nature of testing has made it extremely important to move from individual tests to group ones. In 1917-1919. The first group tests appeared in the USA. Tests are most widely used Arthur Sinton Otis. The basic principles used in the compilation of these tests were systematized and subsequently formed the basis of the entire methodology of group tests.
1. The principle of time limitation, i.e. the development indicator directly depends on the speed at which the test subject completes tasks.
2. The principle of detailed instructions both in relation to carrying out and in relation to counting.
3. Tests with a selective method of forming an answer have been introduced with instructions to underline at random in case of ignorance or doubt.
4. Selection of tests after careful statistical processing and experimental testing.
Second stage in the development of testing the 20-60s can be considered. last century. In those years the American W. A. McCall divided tests into pedagogical and psychological to determine mental abilities. The main objective of pedagogical tests was to measure the success of students in certain school disciplines over a certain period of study, as well as the success of using certain teaching and organizational methods.
The development of the first pedagogical test belongs to an American psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike. He is considered the founder of pedagogical measurement. The first pedagogical test published under his leadership was the Stone test for solving arithmetic problems. It is in the United States that success tests for testing students' knowledge, skills and abilities in individual subjects are particularly widespread.
The development and testing of tests is carried out by special government services. Back in 1900 ᴦ. The Council on Entrance Examinations was created in the United States. In 1926 ᴦ. The College Board developed tests for the qualification and professional assessment of a teacher. Since 1947 ᴦ. in the USA there is a Testing Service, which is considered the most representative research center.
The development of foreign language tests was also concentrated in the USA and Great Britain. The first foreign language test was B. Wood in 1925. His tests were used for final exams in New York schools and included multiple-choice tasks in vocabulary, grammar and reading in French and Spanish. In 1929 ᴦ. American psychologist W. Henmon studied some issues of the technology of compiling test items for success tests. He developed tests to test knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics; skills to understand what is read at the level of sentences and paragraphs, translation, listening, speaking skills, and the ability to write essays. V. Henmon also developed a comprehensive foreign language test, which consisted of a number of sections - subtests, similar to the above-mentioned isolated tests.
The fundamental work on testing issues is considered to be a monograph by an American linguist, methodologist and testologist. R. LadoʼʼLanguage testingʼʼ (1961), who, based on the close interaction of training and control, proposed including in the test those elements that are difficult for students. R. Lado believed that knowledge of these difficulties and the ability to overcome them makes it possible to study the language more qualitatively. The negative aspect of his work was that only knowledge of discrete linguistic units is not the goal of teaching foreign languages, the main thing is the ability to use them in the process of communication in a given foreign language.
The development of the language testing problem went through several stages. There is a translational, or pre-scientific, stage, which is identified with various tests in the schools of the scribes of Ancient Babylon and the priests of Ancient Egypt; psychometric-structuralist stage of the development of tests under the sign of scientific character (pedagogical tests), which dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. and continues until the 70s. In the 70s. XX century The psycholinguistic stage begins, and then, in the 90s, the communicative stage of test control in teaching foreign languages.
During the second and third stages of language testing development, discrete and integrative approaches to testing developed. The discrete approach differed from the integrative one in that during discrete testing only the assimilation of language material was tested, which did not pose any particular difficulties for processing test results, while in integrative tests various skills in using language material were tested. Types of integrative tests are the cloze test (a test for filling in gaps in the text) and dictation, which indicate only the level of development of the linguistic competence of students.
The period of communicative testing is associated with the development of the problem of communicative competence. The impetus for the revision of language testing was the development of a model of communicative competence, including 6 levels of foreign language proficiency, proposed by the Council of Europe. Based on the main goal of teaching foreign languages - the formation of communicative competence, practical skills began to be identified as testing objects. The communication test is designed to reveal the degree of development of communication skills, i.e., the test taker’s ability to solve extralinguistic (practical) problems using verbal means.
Today, the levels of foreign language proficiency set by the Council of Europe serve as a guideline for communication tests in many countries.
In Russia, tests have received practical significance after 1925., when a special testing commission was created. It existed at the pedagogical department of the Institute of School Work Methods. Her tasks included developing tests for the Soviet school. And already in the spring of 1926. such tests were released, created on the basis of American ones. Tests were developed in natural history, social studies, numeracy, problem solving, reading comprehension, and spelling tests. These tests came with instructions and a scorecard to record the student's progress.
Already in those years it was proven that the test method allows not only to cover individual elementary mental processes, but can analyze their totality. At the same time, it was noted that test accounting eliminates randomness, subjectivity and approximate assessment of work with students.
However, the situation soon changed dramatically. Published in 1936 ᴦ. The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks had a negative impact on the development of testology. The test method was recognized as a weapon of discrimination against students and was “expelled” from the Soviet school.
If in domestic science research in the field of development and application of tests was suspended, in a number of Western countries they continued to develop intensively in various directions. In the 30-50s. Considerable attention was paid to the so-called predictive tests, the purpose of tests in the education system, types of tests and their use in practice. Issues related to the development of tests by practicing teachers are of particular relevance at this time.
The next stage in the development of testing in Russia is the period from the early 60s. until the end of the 70s. Reforms in the teaching of a number of subjects and the development of programmed instruction have given a significant impetus to the further improvement of tests.
Along with this, testing using computers is beginning to be widely introduced, which became possible thanks to advances in the field of automation and cybernetics. The emergence of cybernetics contributed to the study of feedback in learning. At the same time, testologists adopted the principle of branched programming, the essence of which is as follows: if the test subject answered correctly, then at the next step he is given more difficult tasks, and vice versa. It was noted that this approach creates favorable conditions for students to identify their mental abilities.
In the 60s. The first, after a long break, research by domestic scientists on the use of psychological and pedagogical tests begins. Basically, these works analyze many years of testing experience accumulated in foreign countries.
Since the beginning of the 80s. A new stage in the development of testing in Russia has begun. This period is characterized by a number of features. First of all, an important area is the intensive use of computers both in the testing process and in processing the results obtained. Along with this, in a number of Western countries, especially in the USA, testing is becoming practically the leading form of control. Countries such as the Netherlands, England, Japan, Denmark, Israel, Canada, and Australia have developed the theory and practice of testing, created test development services, and are organizing mass testing.
In Russia today the theory and practice of pedagogical measurements is also intensively developing. In teaching foreign languages, this is scientific research by a team of authors I. A. Rapoporta, R. Selg, I. Sotter, who summarized foreign and domestic experience, developed a methodology for a scientific approach to testing, designed tests and tested them experimentally3.
With the introduction of educational standards, incl. and in foreign languages, it became extremely important to streamline and objectify the means of control and assessment to verify compliance with the requirements of the standards for the level of students’ preparation. For this purpose, an experiment is being conducted on mass testing using unified control measuring materials (Unified State Exam). These are tests of three levels of complexity (basic, advanced and high), which correlate with the levels of foreign language proficiency defined in the documents of the Council of Europe as follows: basic level - A2+, advanced level - B1, high level - B2. To solve scientific problems in the theory and practice of testing, the Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements was created.
So, the history of the development of testing abroad and in Russia has shown that tests of the level of learning (success tests) are an important way of assessing teaching activities, with the help of which the results of the educational process can be quite objectively, reliably measured, processed, interpreted and used in teaching practice.
History of the emergence of testing and testology. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "History of the emergence of testing and testology." 2017, 2018.
