Orthodox system of Hindu philosophy. Orthodox philosophical schools of ancient India. Orthodox schools of ancient India

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the globe. It originated on the Hindustan Peninsula almost 6 thousand years ago. In an attempt to understand themselves, the world around them and their place in it, ancient Indian philosophers began to take the first steps in the development of worldview teachings. This is how the philosophy of Ancient India was born, which had a significant influence on the entire world culture.

general characteristics

Indian philosophy dates back to the middle of the first millennium BC. e. Depending on the various sources of philosophical thought, ancient Indian philosophy is usually divided into three main stages:

Vedic - the period of orthodox philosophy of Hinduism (XV-VI centuries BC).
Epic - the period of creation of the famous epics “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, which examined the global problems of philosophy of that time, entering the arena of Buddhism and Jainism (VI-II centuries BC).
Age of Sutras – a period of short philosophical treatises in which individual problems are described (II century BC-VII century AD).

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has developed continuously and naturally, without radical changes in ideas and points of view. All the main provisions are described in the Vedas dating back to the 15th century. BC e. Almost all the literature that followed the Vedas is related to their interpretation. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and included four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Rice. 1. Vedas.

The main principles of the philosophy of Ancient India include:

improvement of a person’s inner world;
the desire to warn against mistakes that in the future may become causes of suffering;
sincere belief in the unchangeable moral order of the Universe;
perception of the Universe as a fertile field for moral actions;
ignorance is the source of all human suffering, while knowledge is a prerequisite for the salvation of everyone;
gaining knowledge through prolonged conscious immersion;
subordination of weaknesses and passions to reason, which is the only path to salvation.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

In Ancient India, philosophical schools were divided into two large groups: orthodox - those that developed on the basis of the teachings of the Vedas, and unorthodox.

Orthodox schools include:

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Nyiya - the very first orthodox school, according to which the world can be known by man only with the help of his senses. This philosophical system is based on the study of metaphysical problems, not in a sensory, but in a logical way.
Vaisesika - preached the eternal cycle of life, consisting of a chain of numerous transformations and the change of one bodily shell to another. This is the so-called samsara - the wheel of eternal reincarnation. As a result of reincarnation, the soul is in constant movement and search for harmony and ideal.

Rice. 2. Wheel of Samsara.

Yoga - a philosophy of a practical nature, aimed at understanding the world around us and our place in it. According to the provisions of this teaching, only a harmonious person is able to control his own body with the help of the power of the spirit. The main task is the complete subordination of the body to the brain.

The emergence of unorthodox philosophical schools is associated with the worship of materialism. It is based only on the body and its feelings, but not on the ephemeral soul.
The heterodox schools of Ancient India include:

Jainism - teaches that all creatures inhabiting the planet consist of identical atoms, and therefore are equal before the Universe. Harming a living person is a terrible sin. Achieving enlightenment in Jainism is incredibly difficult. To do this, you need to completely replace your usual food with solar energy, never respond to evil with violence and not cause even the slightest harm to any living creature.

The main goal of all philosophical schools of Ancient India was to achieve nirvana - a state of complete harmony with the Universe, the loss of all earthly sensations, dissolution in the Cosmos.

Buddhism - according to this philosophical teaching, the ultimate goal of every person’s life should be the destruction of all earthly desires, which invariably lead to suffering. The most important principle of personal behavior is not to cause harm to others.

Rice. 3. Buddha.

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Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and their division into two large groups. The first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC), Mimamsa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC). BC), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisheshika (VI-V centuries BC)). The second group is heterodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Jainism (IV century BC), Buddhism (VII-VI centuries BC), Charvaka-Lokayata). Veda – a set of canonical texts with a complex of religious and philosophical ideas about the world and man, his place in the world, the meaning of existence and purpose. Orthodox schools: Mimamsa “Mimamsa” literally means “penetration”, “research”, “reasoning”, “discussion”. Mimamsa substantiated the authority of the Vedas, the need to fulfill prescriptions and rituals. This school also dealt with problems of the theory of knowledge. Mimamsa defended the reality of the external world, as well as other objects (soul, God, etc.), which a person learns about on the basis of sensory perception (which is given special attention in Mimamsa). In addition to perception, the sources of knowledge are considered to be logical inference, comparison, the authoritative testimony of sacred books and the recognition of certain imperceptible truths as postulates. This school marked a relatively high level of development of logic. Vedanta The word “Vedanta” means “the final goal of the Vedas,” “the completion of the Vedas.” Vedanta, like Mimamsa, fully and completely recognizes the authority of the Vedas. Vedanta proclaims the material world to be an appearance, an illusion arising from ignorance of the true nature of things. Vedanta analyzes in detail the individual soul, the human Self. According to Vedanta, the soul associated with its body is not free - it craves sensual pleasures and experiences a long series of reincarnations. Victory over ignorance, which enslaves the soul, is achieved by studying Vedanta. Vedanta continues the teachings of the Vedas about Brahman and Atman. Brahman - the highest, objective reality, the impersonal, absolute spiritual principle from which the world and everything that exists arises. Atman – subjective spiritual principle, “I” (human consciousness), soul. Atman is opposed to brahman and at the same time coincides with it due to man’s ability to join the absolute through its mystical knowledge. In the process of cognition, atman and brahman merge. The soul is freed. Vedanta required that the student obediently follow the teacher initiated into its wisdom, and practice constant reflection on its conclusions until he achieves direct and constant contemplation of the truth. The logic of this school led consciousness to mysticism, to contemplation, to the renunciation of active activity and to the subordination of philosophical thought to religion. Samkhya The Sankhya teaching also recognizes the authority of the Vedas. Sankhya suggests that there are two forces in the world - prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). Prakriti is an active creative force, the root cause of the existence of everything. Purusha is a passive force. When they come into contact, the balance in the world is disrupted and a whole multitude of objects appearing that fill the Universe. Yoga The intended meaning of the word “yoga” is “concentration.” The roots of yoga are very ancient; already in the Vedas it is spoken of achieving supernatural abilities through special ascetic practice; epic works describe ascetics turning to yoga in order to obtain magical abilities. The founder of yoga is considered to be the sage Patanjali, who lived around the 2nd century. BC e. The main content of yoga is to develop a practical path to liberation from suffering through training of body and spirit. For this purpose, the practice of asceticism is used, a special ethics based on sympathy for all forms and types of life. Yoga recommendations contain many rational and, to a certain extent, empirically tested instructions related to respiratory hygiene, diet, physical exercise, etc. Unorthodox schoolsJainism The founder of Jainism is considered to be the wandering preacher Vardhamana, who was subsequently given the epithets: Mahavira (Sanskrit “great hero”) and Jina (“victor”). Later they began to be used as the names of the preacher, and the latter gave its name to the religious and philosophical movement as a whole. Jainism denied the holiness of the Vedas, sacrifices, priesthood, the religious sanctification of the Indian caste system of varnas, the decisive influence of gods on the destinies of people, etc. At the center of the teaching is the existence of the individual. Salvation is achieved only through the personal qualities and efforts of people, and not by descent or divine intervention. Jainism is characterized by the doctrine of karma. Karma - the law of retribution for all actions committed by a person in earthly life, both positive and negative. Karma determines not only the well-being or ill-being of existence (health - illness, wealth - poverty, happiness - misfortune, as well as gender, life span, social status of the individual, etc.), but ultimately the progress or regression of a person in relation to his main goal - achieving nirvana , that is, the highest, unburdened by matter, bliss in union with the deity. The human soul (atman) performs actions - good and bad. The total sum of them and their consequences is a manifestation of karma in the broad sense of the word. New and new ones settle on the accumulated karma... It is not easy to stop this process, destroy and clean off the plaque, and protect yourself from it in the future. This can only be achieved through great moral and physical effort over a long period of time: long fasting, mortification of the flesh, study of sacred texts, and strict discipline of behavior. In other words, a monastic lifestyle. Jain monks take five vows prohibiting murder, theft, lying, adultery and property ownership. In Jainism the principle is extremely expressed ahimsa - non-damage to living beings. Therefore, eating meat is absolutely prohibited for those who practice Jainism. Even the life of insects is considered inviolable - Jain monks wear a gauze bandage covering their mouths so that when walking they do not accidentally swallow any barely noticeable insect. They filter drinking water for the same purpose. They always carry a special broom with them to sweep away ants and worms from the road, for fear of crushing them. The monk was forbidden to light a fire - because it destroys life both in the fuel and in the surrounding air. But he also had no right to extinguish it, because by doing so he would destroy the life of the fire itself. Lay Jains were forbidden to engage in agriculture, because it involved not only the destruction of plants, but also the killing of small creatures living in the soil. Buddhism The life of Buddha dates back to the 6th century. BC e. Prince Siddharti from the Gautama family left his family and royal lifestyle, becoming a mendicant teacher. Buddha translated from Sanskrit means “enlightened”, “awakened”. The core of Buddhism is the Buddha's preaching of the “four noble truths.” 1) Life is full of suffering. 2) There is a cause of suffering - desire. A person’s life is filled with desires: the desire for pleasure and pleasure, success, wealth, power. 3) Liberation from suffering - extinguishing the passion of desires, avoiding extremes. This cessation of suffering is an achievement nirvana (in Sanskrit the meaning of this word is “attenuation”, “cooling”), i.e. a state of complete equanimity, liberation from everything that brings pain, distraction from the outside world, as well as from the world of thoughts. 4) There is a path by following which you can get rid of suffering. This path consists of following eight “virtues.” Virtues consist of right conduct, right living, right speech, right direction of thought, concentration or tranquility and equanimity. Lokayata (Charvaka) The oldest materialist philosophical movement. The Lokayata denied the existence of any world other than the material. According to the Lokayata doctrine of existence, the whole world consists of material elements. The things of nature consist of air, fire, water and earth. After death, organisms decompose again into their original elements. Apart from these primary elements and the laws of their combinations, there is no other reality. Followers of Lokayata considered the belief in the existence of God, soul, paradise, and the afterlife to be false, and the objects of this belief were inaccessible to perception. According to the teachings of Lokayata, it is impossible to completely eliminate suffering, but it is possible to reduce it to a minimum and maximize pleasure. As for the usual ethical concepts of virtue and vice, they are an invention of the authors of the sacred books. The same fiction of hell, heaven and the entire ritual of sacrifice.

Table of contents

1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..2p.

2 Buddhism…………………………………………………………………………………3p.

3 Jainism………………………………………………………………………………7pp.

4 Charvaka……………………………………………………………..10p.

5 Ajivika……………………………………………………………..14p.

6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...17p.

7 References……………………………………………………………………..18pp.

Introduction

Indian philosophy has developed continuously since ancient times. And many provisions and views remain relevant in our time.

Almost all the literature on Indian philosophy is written in the language of art connoisseurs - Sanskrit. Indian philosophy emphasized religion and reflection on knowledge. It was born in Vedas- religious writings, under the influence of which the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose. The largest section of the Vedas is Upanishads(over 200 works). In the Upanishads, the basis of all existence is recognized Atman which consists of speech, breathing. Atman is the inner ruler, the spiritual principle, the soul, the Self, which connects both this and that world, and everything that exists. In addition to Atman, the Upanishads recognize Brahman, which is the beginning of everything else. The coincidence of Atman and Brahman opens a person to the highest bliss, which is moksha .

For ancient Indian philosophers, development took place within the framework of schools. All of them were divided into 2 groups: Orthodox and Heterodox.

Orthodox- those who recognize the teachings of the Vedas and life after death.

Unorthodox- those who do not recognize the teachings of the Vedas.

The orthodox ones include:

1. Mimanasa

2. Vedanta

3. Samkhya

4. Yoga

5. Vaisesika

Three schools are considered heterodox:

1. Buddhist

2. Jainiskaya

3. Materialistic (charvaka)

It is these schools and their founders that will be discussed in this work.

BUDDHISM.

In the 6th century BC. every inhabitant of North India could be familiar with one

of three philosophical theories:

Orthodox Hinduism, based on Vedic knowledge and strict observance of rituals and regulations;

Ascetic practice and meditation, which was preached by independent spiritual teachers (hermits - sramanas);

Materialistic and hedonistic philosophy of the Lokayata school.

This era was characterized by the development of trade, the outflow of population to cities and, as a result, the weakening of intra-clan ties and tribal traditions. These reasons forced people to look for new spiritual values.

The founder of this teaching is considered to be Gautama Buddha (Sidhardha

Shakyamuni) (563-483 BC), born into a princely family in Northern India. Later called Buddha (literally awakened, enlightened). He went through a difficult life path (heir to the throne, ascetic, hermit, sage) after which he “received his sight” (527 BC) and passed on his spiritual achievements to people.

The main idea of Buddhism is the “middle way” of life between two extremes:

- “through pleasure” (entertainment, idleness, laziness, physical and

moral decay) and “through asceticism” (mortality, deprivation, suffering, physical and moral exhaustion).

The middle path is the path of knowledge, wisdom, reasonable limitation, contemplation, enlightenment, self-improvement, the ultimate goal of which is Nirvana - the highest grace.

Key Concepts of Buddhism

Pratitya Samutpada. Represents a fundamental concept in Buddhist philosophy and can be translated in three ways.

Dependent start;

Conditioned reproduction;

Relationship.

The general meaning of the concept can be conveyed in the following words: “The essential is that which arises; what dies ceases to be so.” Those. under certain conditions, an object appears, and when these conditions change, it disappears. Provides three signs of the manifestation of the universe.

Anigga. Everything in the world is subject to a constant process of change.

Anatta. Everything that exists is not only changeable, but simply does not exist on its own.

Dukha. The term dukkha denotes all the unsightly aspects of life, even pleasure, for it is known that everything ends sooner or later.

Four Noble (Aryan) Truths Revealed by Buddha

1. Life is nothing but dukkha (suffering and dissatisfaction)

2. The cause of suffering is tanha (attachment to life as

the source of suffering; an illusory attitude to reality, when what is desired is presented as reality).

3. With deliverance (nirodha) from attachments, the cause of suffering disappears.

4. To avoid attachments, one should adhere to the middle path called magga.

Stages of the Eightfold Path of Liberation

1. correct vision - understanding the fundamentals of Buddhism and your path in life;

2. right thought - a person’s life depends on his thoughts, when thoughts change (from wrong to right, noble), life changes;

3. correct speech - a person’s words, his speech affects his soul,

character;

4. the right action is to live in harmony with yourself and other people.,

non-harm to others;

5. correct lifestyle - observing Buddhist precepts in every action;

6. the right skill - diligence and hard work;

7. correct attention – control over thoughts, since thoughts give rise to further life;

8. correct concentration - regular meditations that make connections with the cosmos.

The Threefold Way

The Noble Eightfold Path is not the only way to realize the Dharma. A very common doctrine is the following:

Strength (morality) is a set of commandments;

Samadhi (meditation) – expansion of consciousness;

Prajna (wisdom) is a reflection of the two previous aspects in practical embodiment. Wisdom is attainable at three levels:

Srutamaya-prajna - wisdom gained from reading sutras;

Chintamaya-prajna - wisdom gained through self-contemplation and

reflections;

Bhavanamaya-prajna is the highest wisdom acquired through spiritual practice.

Anatta. The Buddha's teaching became, on the one hand, a creative development

Hindu traditions and concepts, on the other hand, completely refuted some religious and philosophical concepts. Hinduism adheres to the concept of the higher “I” (Atman), which, although inherent in the physical body, is at the same time completely independent of it. In the anatta teaching, the Buddha denies the concept of the Eternal Atman. The True Self is what feels, sees, thinks and makes life choices. In other words, there is no elusive substance.

Buddhism has never been frozen and finalized

religious doctrine. So it is not surprising that over time many philosophical and religious schools and movements arose. Moreover, in the process of development, Buddhism organically absorbed many cultural and religious traditions, which were interpreted in line with basic conceptual approaches.

JAINISM.

The central idea of this religious and philosophical doctrine is

the principle of ahimsa (non-harm). Like other philosophical schools, Zhdainism is not content with purely speculative reasoning and sets the main goal as the implementation of means to overcome human suffering. Adherents of the doctrine see salvation in victory over worldly passions that limit the capabilities of consciousness. The word jina itself means winner. In the Jain tradition, there were 24 religious teachers known as ford-makers, that is, those who led their followers through the stormy stream of worldly adversity towards salvation and peace. There is historically reliable evidence about the last of them, Mahavira (599 -527 BC). Like Sidhartha Gautama, he left home and led an ascetic life for several years.

Lifestyle. During my wanderings I met the founder

opposition Hindu sect Ajaviks - Gosalaya. There is also information about his meeting and debate with Buddha. At the age of 42 he achieved enlightenment, from then on he became known as Jina, and his followers began to be called Jains - the comrades-in-arms of the winner.

Basic Concepts

The main work on Jain philosophy is Tattvartha

sutra."Central themes: non-harm, rejection of categorical

judgments and relinquishment of property.

Anekantavada. Rejection of absolute truths. The essence of things should be perceived depending on the angle from which they are viewed. Those. any knowledge is conditional.

Atomism and animism. Jainism is based on the doctrine of the discrete, discontinuous structure of matter and distinguishes four types of manifestation of microparticles (atoms): air, fire, water, earth. The atomic formations of these primary elements are combined into skandhas, from which, in turn, phenomenal objects are formed. However, the world consists not only of material objects, but also of attributes of a more subtle level, the reality of which is nevertheless obvious. These include joy, sorrow and life itself, the latter being designated as the soul or jiva. Those. we are dealing with a universe in which everything is in the interaction of physical and non-physical structural

elements. The phenomenal world is essentially eternal, despite the conventionality of its earthly manifestations.

Atheism and the ever-changing universe. At its core, Jainism is atheistic. Does not recognize the final merger of Atman with Brahman. Instead, the soul's attainment of ultimate reality is recognized. The world is beginningless, but is in a constant process of evolution and involution. In this case, no evidence is required; the process of change is carried out in accordance with karmic laws. Therefore, the universe is not controlled by God, but by karma.

In Jainism, two directions coexist: the Digambara sect (dressed

cardinal directions) and Shvetambaras (dressed in white). From the point of view of extreme asceticism, a monk should not own anything or have attachment to anything. Therefore, since clothing can become an object of desire, a Jaina monk should be naked. Both sects recognized the truth of the statement, but the Svetambaras compromised and allowed their followers to wear clothes, and the Digambaras embodied the monastic ideal in practice, although in modern times their adherents cover their bodies in public.

Despite the ascetic ethics of Jainism, secular adherents of the doctrine often become successful deloi. Among the laity, the element of detachment from earthly goods takes the form of charity. Thus, wealthy followers of the tradition finance the construction of temples and financially

support communities.

In conclusion, we can say that there are many common aspects between the philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism: both Gautama and Mahavira professed atheism and pointed out the variability and impermanence of the surrounding world; both emphasized the importance of the doctrine of ahimsa as a key concept of morality and spiritual growth; both pointed to the path from worldly existence to monasticism as the most desirable; denied the authority of Vedic knowledge and cult practice. However, there is a significant difference between the teachings.

Buddhism does not recognize either the self of the Ego or the jiva as some kind of material

substance, on the contrary, the “I” is proclaimed only as a conventional concept. It is equally important to note that Jainism (like Samkhya) willingly raises universal questions and talks about life after death, while Buddhism considers such speculations fruitless and leading astray.

CHARVAKA

Charvaka (charvaka-lokayata) is perhaps the most unartodox school of ancient Indian philosophy. Its influence on Indian culture cannot be considered very significant. Moreover, it proved uncompetitive in the historical struggle of ideas on the Indian cultural scene. The teachings of this school lost influence over time. All her works perished or were deliberately destroyed by those whom they mercilessly criticized; only fragments of her doctrines and statements about her in the works of other ancient Indian authors survived. And yet it is characteristic of the spiritual atmosphere and ideological struggle of Ancient India. In addition, the teaching of the Charvakas is important in one more respect - it confirms the genetic unity (including approximately equal diversity) of philosophical subjects in the main cultural centers of world civilization.
As a school, darshana, that is, a doctrine with followers, the Charvakas were constituted approximately in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The founder is considered to be a semi-legendary sage Brihaspati. The etymology of the name is unclear.

According to one version the word “charvaka” comes from the verb “charv” - “eat, chew” and is a contemptuous nickname for ancient Indian materialist hedonists, who allegedly preached: “Eat! drink! have some fun!". According to another version, the term “charvaka” comes from “charu” - “pleasant” and “vak” - “word”, resulting in “an intelligible, pleasant word”.

“Lokayata”- a synonym for the term “charvaka”. He is also ambiguous. The Sanskrit “loka” means “world, universe, place-level”, and in the plural - “people, people, humanity”. The direct interpretation of the term “lokayata” sounds like “limitation to the world of experience of ordinary people.”
The Charvaks were distinguished by a sharply negative attitude towards Vedic authorities and towards religious dogma in general. They argued that the Vedas “suffer from vices - deceit, inconsistency, verbosity.” “Fraudsters, jesters, vagabonds - that’s who composed... the Vedas,” said Brihaspati himself. The Charvaks ridiculed the religious rituals of the Brahmin priests and showed the absurdity of sacrifices. They did not believe in the reality of Brahman and Atman, the law of Karma, heaven and hell, or any other world at all. Accordingly, they denied the existence of the soul after death: “When the body turns to dust, how can it be reborn again? If what leaves the body goes to another world, why doesn’t it return again, drawn by love for its loved ones?” The commemoration of the dead, as well as other religious rites, were in their eyes only a way to feed a large army of Brahmins.
The Charvaka Lokayata recognized only this sensory material world as the only real one. He, she believed, was formed from a spontaneous combination of four principles (the principles are mahabhutas, “great essences”): earth, water, air (wind), fire (light). Later, some representatives of this school added a fifth to the four named principles - ether. The originals are initially active and self-motivated. Each thing, according to the teachings of the Charvakas, has an individual nature or essence - svabhava. Svabhava makes every thing unique and self-determined. External influences, alien to the nature of a given thing, are powerless to change its fate, the immutable, causal course of its internal changes. Everything that happens or happens in this world certainly had to happen, regardless of whether we want it or not.
The soul was identified by the Charvakas with the sense organs and the mind. It, in their understanding, arises when the primary elements, or mahabhutas, properly uniting with each other, form a living body. In the mahabhutas themselves there is no soul, no consciousness. This is the effect of integrity, something new that appears as a result of a connection corresponding to the combination of the original elements. Simple life observations inclined the Charvakas to such a conclusion. For example, this: when mixing quinoa and some other substances, an intoxicating power appears that was previously absent. Along with the death of the body, and this is nothing more than its disintegration into its original primary elements, the soul also disappears.
Charvaka derived all knowledge from the senses. In this sense they were sensualists. The Charvaks also developed a theory of inference. They distinguished, in particular, two types of inferences:

1) inferences based on sensory perception data - they are conclusive and can be trusted.

2) inferences that are not based on sensory perception data and therefore lack evidentiary value are essentially false. Among such false conclusions, the Lokayatists included, in particular, the Brahmanistic proof of the existence of God and the immortality of the soul.
Charvakas were hedonists: the meaning of life is happiness, and happiness is pleasure. They glorified the natural feelings and joys of people. “Wisdom,” they believed, “is to enjoy the pleasures that are available to us and, as far as possible, to avoid the suffering that accompanies them... As the sage said, the joys brought to a person by sensual things must be rejected, since they are accompanied by suffering, but this is the demand of fools. But what kind of person who wants real benefit for himself would throw away grains of rice because they are covered with husks and nothing more?” Evil and good, according to the Charvakas, are an illusion created by the human imagination. Only suffering and pleasure are real; the fabric of human existence is woven from them. It is impossible to eliminate suffering from human life, but we can and should strive to make it minimal. The denial of asceticism, which was one of the main values of ancient Indian culture, rigid materialism and consistent hedonism make the teachings of the Charvakas a noticeable phenomenon in the history of Indian philosophy.

ADJIVIKA

Ajivika- one of the unorthodox ancient Hindus. teachings that deny the existence of the soul. A. was originally associated with Buddhism and, perhaps, was even a variation of the latter, since the Buddhists of antiquity also categorically rejected the concept of “soul.” According to tradition, the founder of A. is considered to have lived in the 6th-8th centuries. BC e. sage Markalideva. According to medieval Vedanta treatises, the ajivika is based on the atomistic idea, which determines other ideas and concepts of this teaching. According to the teachings of Ajivika, there are four types of atoms, from which the four elements of nature are built:

All atoms have the ability to combine. Life is not something atomic, it is something that perceives and cognizes combinations of atoms. The varieties of atoms and life form five essences, which exhaust everything that exists in the world. Consciousness is a special aggregate of ultra-fine atoms included in the “life” configuration. Atoms are eternal, indivisible, not created by anyone and indestructible. Ajivika acted as a realistic and basically materialistic teaching that opposed the ancient Indians. religions and philosophy of Brahmanism (Indian philosophy). Ajivika rejected the Brahmanical doctrines of karma, samsara and moksha; this denial sometimes turned into preaching ethical relativism.

On the eve of the creation of two socially organized reform systems (Jainism and Buddhism), preachers appeared who had such a significant influence on spiritual life that their names were not consigned to oblivion. The Buddhist tradition speaks of “six teachers” who became the main opponents of the Buddha in religious and philosophical disputes, and among them about Gosala, the founder of the Ajivika movement, which lasted for two millennia, until the 16th century AD, when Buddhism as such practically disappeared with territory of India. It is characteristic that the word “ajivika” was originally used to designate ascetics and sages who broke with the orthodox Brahmanical tradition and led a special “ajiva” lifestyle. Most of the Sramanas denied the authority of the Vedas, and hence their categorical disagreement with the claims of Brahmanism to a special position in society and to the role of the only bearers of truth. According to the Sramanas, every student who has worked to master it is capable of mastering it. The Sramanas, who overwhelmingly belonged to other varnas, denied the social privileges of the priesthood consistently and uncompromisingly. The dissolution of the names of previously independent anti-Brahmanical doctrines into one Ajivika teaching reflected the real process of absorption of various “heretical” schools by the most developed movement. Gosala, more than his opponents, tried to unite the views of various Shraman sects in the water teaching. The Ajivikas were very popular in the courts of kings, since many of them were astrologers and were engaged in predictions. Kings built rich monasteries for them, merchants made monetary offerings to their communities. The doctrine of prediction was an essential part of the teachings of the Ajivikas. His place in it was determined by the central idea of recognizing the predetermination of all natural phenomena and human life. In contrast to the Vedic religion, which asserted the omnipotence of the gods, who constantly interfere in the natural course of events, and the magical power of the sacrificial priests, whose ritual actions gave them power even over the gods, the Ajivikas put forward a single principle - a comprehensive and impersonal fate. The past, present and future of all beings and things are embedded in it. In the world, they said, there is nothing supernatural; the most complex processes are as natural as the simplest.

Conclusion

After reading this report, I can say with confidence that each of the heterodox schools took their philosophy seriously.

Ancient India is one of the largest centers of ancient civilization where philosophy originated.

Indian philosophy is truly “living fruit” that continues to nourish global human thought with its juices. No philosophy has had such a strong impact on the West as Indian. Indian philosophy is not only exotic, but precisely the attractiveness of healing recipes that help a person survive. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to the inner world of man, it opens up a world of possibilities for a moral personality, and this is probably where the secret of its attractiveness and vitality lies.

In modern India, cultural heritage is respected. This country is characterized by the vitality of ancient traditions and it is not surprising that many achievements of ancient Indian civilization were included in the general cultural fund of Indians. They became an integral component of world civilization, and India itself remains one of the most beloved and mysterious countries in the world, the “country of the sages.”

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2. Great Eastern Thinkers - Ian P. McGreal - Moscow 1998

3. History of philosophy – Mareev S.N., Mareeva E.V. – Moscow 2004

4. Philosophy: we pass without problems (Basic course) – Khalin K.E. – Moscow 2010

5. Textbook for universities: History of philosophy - Ilyin V.V. – Moscow 2003

Orthodox schools

In contrast to non-orthodox schools (Charvakas, Jainism, Buddhism), in the history of ancient Indian philosophy there were orthodox schools that did not deny the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, relied on them. Let's consider the main philosophical ideas of these schools

Vedanta(the completion of the Vedas) is the most influential system, the most important philosophical basis of Hinduism. She recognizes Brahman as the absolute spiritual essence of the world. Individual souls (atmans) through knowledge or love of God achieve salvation by uniting with God. The way out of the cycle of birth (samsara) lies in considering everything that exists from the point of view of the highest truth; in the knowledge of the truth that the external world surrounding a person is an illusory world, and the true unchanging reality is brahman, with which atman is identified. The main way to achieve this true knowledge is morality and meditation, which means intense meditation on the problems of the Vedas.

Mimamsa(reflection, study of the Vedic text on sacrifices). This system concerns the explanation of the ritual of the Vedas. The teaching of the Vedas here is closely associated with dharma - the idea of duty, the fulfillment of which involves, first of all, sacrifice. This fulfillment of one's duty leads to gradual redemption from karma and to liberation as the cessation of rebirth and suffering.

Samkhya(number, enumeration) - it is based not directly on the text of the Vedas, but on independent experience and reflection. In this regard, Samkhya differs from Vedanta and Mimamsa. The teaching of this school expresses the point of view according to which the first cause of the world is matter, nature (prakrita). Along with nature, the existence of absolute soul (purusha). It is thanks to its presence in all things that the things themselves exist. When prakriti and purusha unite, the initial principles of the world arise, both material (water, air, earth, etc.) and spiritual (intelligence, self-awareness, etc.).

Thus Samkhya is dualistic direction in the philosophy of Hinduism.

Yoga(tension, deep thought, contemplation). The philosophy of this school is aimed at practical psychological training. Its theoretical basis is Samkhya, although a personal god is also recognized in yoga. A large place in this system is occupied by an explanation of the rules of mental training, the successive steps of which are: self-observation ( pit), mastery of breathing in certain positions (postures) of the body ( asana), isolation of feelings from external influences ( pratyahara), concentration of thought ( dharana), meditation ( dhyana), state of rejection ( samadhi). At the last stage, the liberation of the soul from the bodily shell is achieved, the shackles of samsara and karma are broken. The ethical standards of yoga are associated with the formation of a highly moral personality.

Vaisesika. At an early stage of development, this system contains pronounced materialistic aspects. According to it, all things are constantly changing, but they also contain stable elements - spherical atoms. Atoms are eternal, not created by anyone and have many qualities (17 qualities of atoms). From them various animate and inanimate objects arise. Although the world consists of atoms, the driving force behind its development is God, who acts in accordance with the law of karma.

Nyaya(rule, logic) - the study of forms of thinking. In this system the main thing is to study metaphysical problems with the help logic. Nyaya starts from liberation as the ultimate goal of human life. According to representatives of this school, the conditions and methods of true knowledge as a means of achieving liberation can be determined with the help of logic and its laws. Liberation itself is understood as the cessation of the influence of negative factors of suffering.

Unorthodox schools . Among the many adherents of new views who rebelled against the authority of the Vedas, we should name, first of all, representatives of such systems as: carvaka(materialists), Jainism, Buddhism. All of them belong to unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Charvaka denies the concept of brahman, atman, samsara and karma. The basis of all things here is matter in the form of four primary elements: earth, water, fire and air. The theory of knowledge also corresponds to the ontological essence of this teaching. Its basis is sensory perception peace. Only that which is known through direct perception is true. Therefore, there is no reason for the existence of another world, not perceived by the senses. No other world simply can exist. Therefore, religion is a stupid delusion.

Jainism. Its founder is considered to be Mahavira Vardhamana (VI century BC). He also received the name Gina, which means Winner (meaning victory over the cycle of rebirth). A characteristic feature of the philosophical and ethical concept of Jainism is its development of rules and norms of human behavior and the requirement of their strict observance. Ethical education of the individual is a decisive factor in the transition of the individual’s existence from an imperfect state to a perfect one. And although karma is everything, our present life, which is in our own control, can change the impact of the past. And with the help of excessive efforts we can avoid the effects of karma. Therefore, in the teachings of the Jains there is no absolute fatalism, as it may seem at first glance.

It should be noted that the philosophy of Jainism retains its influence in India today.

Buddhism just like Jainism, it arose in the 6th century. BC e. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha(awakened, enlightened), because after many years of hermitage and asceticism he achieved awakening, that is, he came to understand the correct path of life, rejecting extremes. A characteristic feature of this teaching is its ethical and practical orientation, and the central question that interests him is existence of personality.

Liberation from suffering as the ultimate goal of a person’s existence is, first of all, the destruction of desires, or more precisely, the extinguishing of their passion. Connected with this is the most important concept of Buddhism in the moral sphere - the concept tolerance (tolerance) and relativity.

Its concept is organically connected with the ethics of Buddhism knowledge. Cognition here is a necessary way and means of achieving the ultimate goal of a person’s existence.

In Buddhism, the distinction between the sensory and rational forms of knowledge is eliminated and the practice of meditation

The main philosophical schools of ancient China: Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism.

Confucianism. This is one of the most important areas of development of Chinese philosophy, covering the periods of ancient and medieval Chinese society. The founder of this direction was Confucius(551 - 479 BC). In literature he is often called Kunzi, which means teacher Kun. And this is no coincidence; already at the age of just over 20 he became famous as the most famous teacher in China. The main source of his teachings is the book “ Lun Yu» (« Conversations and judgments") - statements and conversations with students recorded by his followers.

At the center of his teaching is Human, his mental and moral development and behavior. Concerned about the decomposition of his contemporary society and the decline of morals, Confucius paid main attention to issues of education ideal, noble person(jun-tzu), which should be carried out in a spirit of respect for surrounding people and society.

You should also pay attention to the concept “ golden mean» Confucius. “The path of the golden mean” is one of the main elements of his ideology and the most important principle of virtue, for “the golden mean, as a virtuous principle, is the highest principle.”

Taoism

At the center of Taoist teaching is the category Tao(literally - path, road). Tao is the invisible universal natural law of nature, human society, behavior and thinking of an individual. Tao is inseparable from the material world and governs it. It is no coincidence that Tao is sometimes compared to logos. ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

In Taoism, everyone needs to abide by the principle of following the Tao as the universal law of the spontaneous arising and disappearing of the entire universe. One of the main categories of Taoism is connected with this - inaction, or inaction. While observing the law of Tao, a person can remain inactive. Lao Tzu therefore denies any effort by both the individual and society in relation to nature, for any tension leads to disharmony and increasing contradictions between man and the world. And those who seek to manipulate the world are doomed to failure and death. The main principle of personal behavior is maintaining the “measure of things.” Therefore, non-action ( wu wei) and is one of the main and central ideas of Taoism, it is this that leads to happiness, prosperity and complete freedom.

Legalism.

The formation of legalism took place in a sharp struggle with early Confucianism. Although both schools sought to create a powerful, well-governed state, they substantiated the principles and methods of its construction in different ways. Confucianism, as is known, proceeded from the moral qualities of people and emphasized the role and significance of ritual, moral norms in establishing order in the country and principles of governance. The legalists, on the contrary, proceeded from laws, arguing that politics is incompatible with morality. In their opinion, the ruler should exercise his main influence on the masses through rewards and punishments. In this case, punishment plays the main role. Management of the state and its development should be carried out not on the basis of good wishes, but by developing agriculture, strengthening the army and at the same time fooling the people.

The concept of the state created by the legalists was the theory of the despotic state. Everyone must be equal before the law, except the ruler himself, who is the only creator of laws. It was legalism that played a decisive role in the formation of the imperial-bureaucratic system of government in China, which lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. Instead of the traditional principle of inheritance of positions, they proposed a systematic renewal of the state apparatus by appointing officials to positions, equal opportunities for promotion to administrative posts, unification of the thinking of officials, and their personal responsibility.

7Cosmocentrism of ancient philosophical thinking and the problem of first principles (pre-Socratic philosophy).

The origin of Greek philosophy was mythology.

From myths, the first Greek philosophers borrowed the idea of the primary chaos of the world, the motif of the separation of heaven and earth, personifying the male and female principles of the universe, the idea of the evolution of the world towards greater order, the motif of the periodic death and rebirth of the cosmos. The philosophical views of the Greeks, in contrast to mythological ones, are characterized by the belief that the cosmos is a harmonious whole that emerged from chaos thanks to logos (mind, natural order, the principle of the structure of the world), that the world is cognizable by reason, and reason should be the main “authority” in solving human problems. Mythological story(legend) about the creation of the world through the copulation of male and female elements, philosophy replaces it with reasoned reasoning about the causes of things.

The early Greek philosophers are usually called "physicists", "physiologists" or natural philosophers. The most important question for them was the question of “arch” (the origins of the world).

Milesian school

The first philosophical school of Ancient Greece is considered Milesian school(Miletus, 6th century BC). Its founder Thales(about 625 - about 547 BC) - one of the semi-legendary “seven wise men”. Thales' cosmological concept boiled down to three propositions: 1) everything came from water, 2) the earth floats on water, like a piece of wood, 3) everything in the world is animate, or “full of gods.”

Anaximander(about 610 - after 547 BC) - the second prominent representative of the Milesian school. He outlined his teachings in a book that is considered the first scientific work written in prose in the history of Greek thought. Anaximander considered the source of all things to be a certain eternal and boundless principle, which he called “divine,” arguing that it “rules everything.” Anaximander called the most important property of this principle by the word apeiron, that is, "infinite."

The last major representative of the Milesian school Anaximenes(VI century BC) believed that all things come from air either by rarefaction associated with heating, or by cooling and condensation.

Pythagorean school.

Pythagoras (580 - 500 BC). The philosophical basis of Pythagoreanism is the doctrine of number. The Pythagoreans understood numbers as principles of structure world and things. Unlike natural philosophers, the Pythagoreans paid attention not to materiality, but to its mathematical structure.

Philosophy of Heraclitus (544 – 483 BC)

Philosophized apart from schools Heraclitus(end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC). In his teaching the most important concept is "logos". The Logos “exists forever,” and “everything happens according to this Logos.” Logos - natural order, law, invisibly ruling the entire universe. At the same time logo also “fire”, living energy that sets everything in motion and change. Logos also word, setting the order of thought.

The most important idea of Heraclitus - the idea of struggle and unity of opposites. Everything in the world consists of opposites. Their struggle determines the essence of any thing and process.

The second most important idea of Heraclitus, associated with his doctrine of logos-fire, is the idea of becoming the non-stop variability of things, their fluidity. Heraclitus entered the consciousness of subsequent generations primarily as a philosopher who taught that “everything flows.” “On those entering the same river streams, more and more new waters flow.

Fire-logos - the fundamental principle space, that is, an orderly, organized world (in this sense, the term “cosmos” was first found in Heraclitus).