Dumouriez Charles-Francois Dumouriez 1739 / 1823 Charles Francois Dumouriez served in the French army from the age of nineteen. He took part in the Seven Years' War (1756 -1763), then carried out diplomatic assignments for Louis XV. From 1778 he served in Cherbourg, where for 11 years he supervised the construction of the port. In 1790 he became a member of the Jacobin Club. In March - June 1792 - Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Girondist government. On June 12 he was appointed Minister of War, but three days later he resigned and, after the overthrow of the monarchy on August 10, took command of the Northern Army. On September 20, he defeated the Prussian army at Valmy, and on November 6, over the Austrians at Jemappe, which allowed the French army to occupy Belgium. In February - March 1793, during an unsuccessful attempt to invade Holland by the French army, he suffered a series of defeats from the Austrian army. On March 23, Dumouriez entered into an agreement with the enemy and promised to turn the army towards Paris, disperse the Convention and restore the monarchy in France led by Louis XVIII. He expressed his readiness to withdraw French troops from Belgium and Holland and immediately surrender a number of fortresses.
On March 29, four commissioners of the Convention and War Minister Bernonville arrived at Dumouriez with orders to remove him from office and arrest him. But Dumouriez himself arrested the envoys of the Convention, the Minister of War and handed them over to the Austrians. However, the army did not support its commander. One of the officers, the future Napoleonic Marshal Davout, attempted to shoot Dumouriez when he heard from his lips an order to march on Paris. The convention declared the rebellious general a traitor to the fatherland. Seeing that everything was lost, Dumouriez fled to the enemy on April 5 with a small group of officers. After this, the former commander wandered around Europe for several years, then settled in England. After the restoration of the monarchy, King Louis did not allow Dumouriez to return to France.
Hanriot Francois Hanriot 1759 - 1794 Petty customs official Francois Hanriot distinguished himself during the uprising of August 10, 1792, after which he was elected battalion commander of the Sansculottes section of the Paris National Guard. During the uprising on May 31, 1793, he was appointed commander of the national guard. On June 2, he surrounded the Convention building with a 100,000-strong armed detachment and 160 guns. Under the threat of being shot from artillery, the Convention adopted a decree arresting 29 leaders of the Girondin party. Under all circumstances, he remained a loyal supporter of Robespierre. On 9 Thermidor (July 27), 1794, after the arrest of Robespierre, Henriot tried to organize a new uprising, but was unsuccessful. Guillotined on July 28 along with Robespierre and his associates.
Babeuf Babeuf Francois-Noel 1760 - 1797 Babeuf Francois-Noel - leader of the far left wing of the plebeian forces in the French Revolution. In honor of the Roman tribune, he took the name Gracchus. He was a decisive opponent of all the governments of the Great French Revolution, not excluding the Jacobins, for their lack of consistency in implementing real economic and political equality. In the fall of 1795, Babeuf, together with his supporters, organized the secret organization “Conspiracy of Equals,” which set itself the goal of establishing a communist society through a violent coup and the establishment of a revolutionary dictatorship. The organization developed a number of measures that it had to immediately implement in the event of a seizure of power. The most important of these measures are the abolition of the right of inheritance, confiscation of private property, destruction of the monetary system, etc. Babeuf publishes two newspapers - "People's Tribune" and "Enlightener", in which he outlines a program of actions with the help of which the Rebellious proletariat could consolidate its seized power, and outlines a plan of political and economic measures that were supposed to ensure the establishment of the communist system.
According to his project, only persons engaged in manual labor could be full citizens, and persons who did not perform any socially useful functions were declared foreigners. Babeuf's conspiracy plan was discovered by officer Grisel, who infiltrated the ranks of the Equals society. On May 10, 1796, Babeuf and his closest associates were arrested, and in September an attempt by the remaining free members of society to organize an uprising of troops near Paris was stopped. Babeuf tried to commit suicide by piercing his chest with a dagger, but was unsuccessful, and on May 27, 1797 he was guillotined. The idea of overthrowing the existing system through secret conspiracies and the violent introduction of the communist system was called “babuvism”
Bailly Jean-Sylvain Bailly 1736 - 1793 Jean-Sylvain Bailly was born in Paris on September 15, 1736 in the family of a curator of the royal art gallery. He became famous for his astronomical observations of the moons of Jupiter and his calculations of the orbit of Halley's Comet. Author of several books on astronomy, member of three French Academies. In 1789, he was elected to the Estates General from Paris, and the deputies of the Third Estate, in turn, elected him chairman of the National Assembly. On July 16, 1789, he was proclaimed mayor of Paris. In August 1790, Bailly was re-elected to the position of mayor, however, after the shooting of the demonstration on July 17, 1791 on the Champ de Mars, his popularity fell sharply. Almost everyone considered him the main culprit of the massacre. On November 16, 1791, Bailly left his position and left for Nantes, where he began writing memoirs. Continuous threats forced Bayi to turn to His friend P. -S. Laplace with a request to find a more suitable shelter for him. Upon leaving Brittany, he was recognized, arrested and taken to Paris. On November 10, 1793, the revolutionary tribunal sentenced Bailly to the guillotine. Before his execution, the former Parisian mayor was subjected to numerous bullying and abuse by the crowd.
Billaud-Varenne Jean-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne 1756 - 1819 Billaud-Varenne Jean-Nicolas was born in La Rochelle into the family of a lawyer. After studying at the University of Paris, he taught at the Oratorian College in Jully. In 1785 he received legal practice in Paris. From 1787 he wrote anonymous treatises in which he sharply criticized the royal power and Catholic Church. At the beginning of the revolution, Billot-Varenne joined the Jacobin Club and the Cordelier Club. In 1791 he was appointed judge in one of the districts of Paris. A member of the rebel commune on August 10, 1792, he participated in organizing the uprising that destroyed the monarchy. He was elected as a deputy of the Convention, and together with the Montagnards he fought against the Girondins. Later he joined the Hébertists. In September 1793 he became a member of the Committee of Public Safety. Active participant in the 9th Thermidor coup. In March 1795, according to the decree of the Convention, together with Collot d'Herbois, he was arrested for "complicity in the tyranny of Robespierre." A month later, during the Germinal uprising of the masses, he was exiled to Guiana without trial, where he married and became a farmer. In 1800 He rejected Napoleon Bonaparte's offer of pardon and remained in Guiana as a free settler. In 1816 he went to the United States of America, and then to Haiti, where, along with a pension, he received the position of secretary to the President of the Republic Petion. Died June 3, 1819 .in Port-au-Prince (Haiti).
Brissot Jacques Pierre issot de Warville 1754 - 1793 Brissot de Warville Jacques Pierre is the son of a wealthy innkeeper. After graduating from college, he served as the first clerk for the prosecutor of the Parisian parliament. After returning from England in 1784, he ends up in the Bastille. Coming out of there, he gets a position with the Duke of Orleans, known for his liberal views. At the same time, his acquaintances began with Mirabeau, Condorcet and other future leaders of the revolution. In 1787 he visited the United States of America and since then has actively advocated the abolition of slavery. Brissot entered the revolution as a journalist and writer, publisher of the newspaper "French Patriot". In the Legislative Assembly he was the leader of the Girondins, defenders of the interests of the large commercial, industrial and financial bourgeoisie of the coastal cities. Since the autumn of 1791, he was an ardent propagandist of the idea of a “revolutionary war”; he believed that the French people were called upon to liberate other peoples from the power of tyrants. He opposed royal power and favored the establishment of a republic in France, but after the Girondins entered the government he tried to prevent the fall of the monarchy. The open clash between the Girondins and the Jacobins in the Convention led to a popular uprising of May 31 - June 2, 1993, as a result of which Brissot and other Girondin leaders were arrested. On October 31, 1993, Brissot was guillotined by the verdict of the revolutionary tribunal.
Boissy d'Angla Francois-Antoine is a French politician and publicist. Elected to the Estates General from the Third Estate. He was the prosecutor general in the Ardennes department. As a deputy of the Convention, he voted against the execution of the king. He was considered one of the leaders of the "Swamp". During the Thermidorian coup he contributed the fall of Robespierre. After 9 Thermidor - a member of the Committee of Public Safety, supervised the food supply of Paris. Considered one of the culprits of the famine, during the uprising of the 1st Prairial he was almost killed by a crowd that broke into the Convention. Boissy d'Anglas - the main speaker of the draft constitution of 1795. , defended the need to introduce a guarantee of property rights and property qualifications for voters. “You must finally guarantee property. In a country governed by property owners, social order reigns, and the country governed by people who do not have property is in a primitive state...” A member of the Council of Five Hundred was elected as its president. After the coup of 18 Fructidor in 1797, he was accused of complicity with the monarchists, sentenced to exile, but fled to England. During Napoleon's consulate he returned to France and was appointed a member of the Tribunate and then a senator with the title of count. After the fall of Napoleon under Louis XVIII - peer of France, member of the Academy. Even under the Bourbons he remained a supporter of freedom of the press and trial by jury.
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud 1753 - 1793 Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud was born in Limoges into a wealthy family of an army contractor. He received a good education at a college in Paris, then studied law in Bordeaux, where in 1781 he became a lawyer for the local parliament. With the beginning of the revolution, Vergniaud joined the society of friends of the constitution; in 1790 he was elected to the administration of the Gironde department, and in 1791, together with Gade and Jansonet, to the Legislative Assembly. Being a brilliant orator, Vergniaud quickly gained popularity, and soon the group of deputies to which he belonged began to be called “Girondists” (after the name of the Gironde department), although Brissot, a deputy from Paris, was considered its ideologist. Vergniaud was one of the first to call for war with Austria. His passionate speeches contributed to the resignation of the government in March 1792, after which persons close to the Girondins were appointed to ministerial posts.
After war was declared on April 20, 1792, failures on the fronts caused another wave of distrust in the royalists and Louis XVI himself. The situation was sharply aggravated by the king's decision to dismiss the Girondist ministers. July 3, 1792 Vergniaud gives a speech in which the question of the deposition of Louis XVI was first raised. This speech made a huge impression and was supported by a stream of petitions from the localities. After the uprising on August 10, the Legislative Assembly, on the report of Vergniaud (who was its chairman at that time), adopted a decree removing the king from power and convening the National Convention. Elected to the Convention, Vergniaud, together with his like-minded Girondins, votes for the execution of Louis XVI (but with a postponement of execution and transfer of the sentence to the people for approval). On March 10, 1793, he sharply but unsuccessfully opposed the creation of the Extraordinary Revolutionary Tribunal. As a result of the uprising of the Parisian sections on May 31, the Convention adopted a decree on the arrest of the Girondin leaders. Vergniaud was among them. At the beginning, when the conditions of detention of the arrested were not difficult (they could move freely around Paris, accompanied by an escort), Vergniaud was offered to escape, but he refused. On June 26, those arrested were placed in prison. On October 24, the trial began at the Revolutionary Tribunal, which ended on October 30. The next day, Vergniaud, along with other Girondins, was guillotined.
Gauche Louis-Lazar 1768 - 1797 Gauche Louis-Lazar was born on June 24, 1768. The son of a retired soldier, he lost his mother early and was raised by an aunt who sold vegetables. At the age of 15, he began working as an assistant groom in the royal stables in Montreuil; at the age of 16, he wanted to enlist in the colonial troops, but since he had excellent physical characteristics, he ended up in the French Guard. After the outbreak of the revolution in 1789, he remained in the guard, a few months later he was promoted to corporal, in May 1792 to lieutenant, and in September of the same year to captain. Having distinguished himself in the winter of 1792 -93. during the offensive of the French army in Belgium, in the fall of 1793 he already commanded the army. He was arrested twice: the first time on suspicion of complicity with General Dumouriez, the second time on the denunciation of General Pichegru. After being released from prison after the Thermidorian coup, he was appointed commander of the armies in western France.
On April 20, 1795, Gauche signed a peace treaty with the leaders of the Vendeans, and on July 21, 1795, he surrounded and completely defeated two divisions of French emigrants who landed on the Quiberon Peninsula. 748 emigrant nobles, taken with weapons in their hands and dressed in British uniforms, were shot on the spot. At the end of 1796 he led a military expedition to Ireland, which ended in failure. In 1797 he commanded the Sambro-Meuse army and successfully crossed the Rhine. At the beginning of September 1797, Ghosh sent troops to Paris to assist the Directory government in carrying out an anti-royalist coup. Having become the most popular general of the French Republic (maybe with the exception of Bonaparte), he unexpectedly died on September 19, 1797, presumably from pneumonia.
David Jacques-Louis David 1748 - 1825 David Jacques-Louis was born into the family of a merchant. After graduating from the Royal Academy, he painted commissioned portraits. In 1774 he received the Grand Roman Prize and left for Italy, where he spent five years. Since the 1780s becomes a fashionable painter. In 1785 he became famous for his painting "The Oath of the Horatii". With the beginning of the revolution, patriotic artists became the leader. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, commissioned by which he painted the painting “The Oath in the Ballroom.” In 1792 he was elected to the Convention. Member of the Arts Commission and the Education Committee. Votes for the execution of Louis XVI. Presents the paintings “The Murdered Le Pelletier” and “The Death of Marat” to the Convention. During the years of the revolution, David is the organizer of many holidays and ceremonies: the transfer of Voltaire’s ashes to the Pantheon, the funeral of Marat, the holiday of the Brotherhood, the Supreme Being. The day before the coup of 9 Thermidor, he spoke out in support of Robespierre at the Jacobin Club. After the coup he was arrested and released a year later. Under Napoleon, David became the emperor's first painter. After the restoration, among other “regicides,” he was expelled from France. Died December 29, 1725 in Brussels.
Desmoulin Camille Desmoulin 1760 - 1794 Camille Desmoulin has been practicing law in Paris since 1785. July 12, 1789 delivers a speech in the garden of the Palais Royal denouncing the policies of Louis XVI, warns patriots of the danger that threatens them and calls Parisians to arms. July 14 Desmoulins among the Parisians storming the Bastille. He quickly became popular as a journalist and revolutionary pamphleteer, publisher of the newspaper "Revolutions of France and Brabant". Being a close friend and like-minded person of Danton, he was a member of the Cordeliers Club. After 10 August appointed by Danton general secretary Ministry of Justice. Elected deputy of the Convention from Paris. In December 1793 he condemned the terror in his newspaper "Old Cordelier". Arrested on March 31, 1794, on April 5, together with Danton, he was guillotined by the verdict of the revolutionary tribunal.
Cambaceres Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambaceres 1753 - 1824 Cambaceres Jean-Jacques-Regis was born in Maupelles (Hérault department), October 18, 1753. An advisor at the Maupelles court, Cambaceres failed in the election of deputies to the Estates General in 1789. but already in 1792 he became the representative of the Hérault department in the Convention. Cambaceres, as a politician, was extremely cautious, but nevertheless voted for the death of the king. After the crash of Robespierre, he joined the Committee of Public Safety. Elected to the Council of Five Hundred, he was Chairman of the Council for some time. On June 20, 1798, he took up the post of Minister of Justice. Thanks to the patronage of Sieyès, Cambaceres took part in the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, becoming Second Consul after the adoption of the constitution of the 8th year. After the proclamation of the Empire, he was appointed a member of the State Council and Archchancellor of the Empire. In March 1808 he received the title of Duke of Parma. In 1813, Cambaceres resigned, and in 1814 he voted in the Senate for the deposition of Napoleon. During the “100 Days” he again sided with Napoleon, and received the portfolio of Minister of Justice. After the second restoration, Louis XVIII, among other “regicides,” expelled him from France. After living in Brussels for about two years, Cambaceres received permission to return to Paris. Died May 1, 1824
Cambon Pierre-Joseph Cambon 1756 - 1820 When the revolution began, Pierre Joseph Cambon was a successful merchant in Montpellier. In September 1791, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, where he dealt with financial issues. Since September 1792 - member of the Convention from the department of Hérault. He achieved the adoption of a decree of December 15, 1792 on the confiscation of the property of the nobility and the church in the territories occupied by the armies of the French Republic. It was he who came up with the later famous phrase “Peace to the huts, war to the palaces.” Voted for the execution of Louis XVI. At first he joined the Girondins, then gradually became closer to the Jacobins, although he opposed the arrest of the Girondin leaders. Since June 1793, Cambon actually led the financial policy of the French Republic. Despite the increasing issue of assignats, he achieved significant success in the fight against inflation and in stabilizing the finances of the revolutionary government. Disapproving of Robespierre's desire to concentrate all power in the Committee of Public Safety, Cambon took part in preparing the coup of 9 Thermidor. However, soon after the coup he was removed from financial management; in April 1795, a decree was issued on his arrest. Having managed to escape, Cambon hid until October 1795, when an amnesty was declared on the last day of the Convention. In 1798, Cambon settled on his small estate near Montpellier, where he lived for about 20 years. He refused Napoleon's offer to enter the service. After the Bourbon restoration, Cambon, among other “regicides,” was expelled from France. Died on February 15, 1720 in Brussels.
Carnot Lazare-Nicolas-Marguerite - military engineer and mathematician, member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791 -1792. , Convention - in 1792 -1795. , Committee of Public Safety in 1793 -1794. At first he took a place in the Convention among the Plains and sympathized with the Girondins in the fight against the Montagnards. But, fearing the defeat of the republic, he left the Gironde after its inability to achieve decisive successes in the war was revealed. He joined the Montagnards, but was not a member of the Jacobin Club. In the Committee of Public Safety he headed the military administration (including the production of weapons and equipment). While drawing up plans for campaigns and directing the formation of armies, he showed enormous energy and talent, became famous as a major military figure, and received the nickname “Organizer of Victories.” A staunch supporter of private initiative, Carnot tried to prevent the nationalization of military manufactories and industrial enterprises. In 1795 -1797 Carnot is a member of the Directory. He played an active role in eliminating the Babeuf conspiracy. He refused to participate in the coup of 18 Fructidor and after the coup was forced to flee to Switzerland. During the consulate of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800, he was Minister of War for a short time. Appointed a member of the Tribunate, he remained a staunch republican and was the only one who opposed the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor. During the "Hundred Days" in March - June 1815 - Minister of the Interior. After the second restoration he was expelled from France. Carnot Lazare-Nicolas. Marguerite Carnot 1753 - 1823
Kloots Anacharsis Cloots 1755 - 1794 Anacharsis Kloots is one of the active participants in the French Revolution, by birth a German baron from the Duchy of Cleves, which belonged to Prussia. His real name was Jean Baptiste; he took the name Anacharsis at the beginning of the revolution under the influence of a passion for classical antiquity. The idea of equality and brotherhood of peoples found in him a passionate follower. In 1790, on behalf of the “Committee of Foreigners,” he thanked the Constituent Assembly for the fight against tyranny. In the summer of 1791, he predicted the imminent establishment of “universal sovereignty” and the formation of “one single nation, including all of humanity.” The capital of the future world republic was to be Paris. In 1792, he was close to the Girondins, as a “speaker of the human race” he demanded from the Legislative Assembly a war with Germany and donated a significant part of his fortune to the armament of France. After being elected to the Convention, he joined the Jacobin camp. Kloots called himself a personal enemy of Christ and every religion, proving in his literary works that only the people can be the sovereign of the world, that only fools can believe in a supreme being, whose cult was proposed by Robespierre.
In the summer of 1794, after the decision was made to exclude foreigners from the Convention, he was arrested and brought to trial. The indictment accused Kloots of intending to restore the monarchy and even “open the doors of prisons and send released criminals against the Convention, destroy the republic by inciting civil war, slander, inciting riots, corrupting morals, undermining social principles, strangling the revolution by hunger...” When Kloots was taken to the building of the Revolutionary Tribunal, the crowd saw him off shouting: “Prussian to the guillotine!” He answered: “Let it go to the guillotine, but admit it, citizens, it’s strange that a man who would have been burned in Rome, hanged in London, wheeled around in Vienna, will be guillotined in Paris, where the Republic has triumphed.”
Collot d'Herbois Jean Marie Collot, dit Collot d'Herbois 1749 - 1796 Collot d'Herbois Jean Marie - born on June 19, 1749 in the family of a Parisian jeweler. A professional actor and comedy writer, in 1787 he became the administrator of the theater in Lyon. In 1789 he organized a theater tour in Paris, where he joined the Jacobin Club. From 1791 he gained popularity as a talented journalist. One of the organizers of the uprising on August 10, 1792. As a deputy of the Convention from Paris, he voted for the execution of Louis XVI. From the beginning of September 1793 - member of the Committee of Public Safety. Was close to the Hébertists. In October - December 1793, he was on a mission in Lyon, where, together with Fouche, he carried out mass terror and destruction of the city. An active participant in the coup of 9 Thermidor. In March 1795, according to the decree of the Convention, he was arrested together with Billot-Varenne for “complicity in the tyranny of Robespierre.” A month later, during the Germinal uprising of the masses, he was exiled to Guiana without trial, where on January 8, 1796 he died of yellow fever.
Corday Marie-Anne Charlotte Corday d "Arman, dite Charlotte Corday 1768 - 1793 Corday (Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d" Armont) - one of the victims of the French Revolution; genus. in 1768 near Caen, she belonged to an old noble family. Reading historical and philosophical works made her a convinced supporter of democratic ideas, but the extremes of the revolution filled her with disgust and horror. When the Girondins, who fled from Paris after May 31, 1793, arrived in Caen, including Barbara, Pétion, Languine and Henri Larivière, whom K. knew personally and deeply respected, a plan was born in her to kill one of the leaders of the Montagnards: July 1, 1793 she arrived in Paris, still hesitating in choosing between Robespierre and Marat; She settled on the latter when she read in his newspaper: “Ami du peuple” that another 200,000 heads were needed to strengthen the revolution. On July 11, she asked Marat for an audience to inform him about the intrigues of the Girondins in Caen, but was only allowed to see him on the evening of July 13. While Marat, sitting in the bath, wrote down, in her words, the names of the conspirators, saying: “okay, in eight days they will be guillotined,” K. plunged a dagger into his heart. Marat died on the spot;
K. voluntarily surrendered into the hands of the authorities, on July 17 she appeared in court, where she behaved with great dignity and called the killing of Marat a benefit for France; Condemned to death, she was executed that same evening. When K.'s head fell, an exclamation was heard from the crowd: “Look, she surpasses Brutus in greatness”; These words were spoken by Adam Lux, a deputy of the city of Mainz, who paid for them with his head. K. justified her action in a letter to Barbara, written in the Conciergerie, and in “Adresse aux Francais amis des lois et de la paix,” pointing to the example of Hercules, who destroyed harmful monsters. K.'s general views expressed here are marked by the stamp of deism and admiration for the ancient world. The fate of K. inspired many artists (painters Schaeffer, Beaudru, sculptor Clesanger); Louise Colet and Ponsard made her the heroine of tragedies. Prince Roland Bonaparte brought K.'s skull to the Paris exhibition of 1889; it was measured by Benedict, Topinard and Lombroso (see Anthropologie, No. I, mars 1890).
Lafayette Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette 1757 / 1834 Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier Marquis de Lafayette was a French politician who took an active part in the American struggle for independence (1775 - 1783). At the head of a volunteer detachment, he went to America and took part in military operations against the British. Returning to France in 1779, he energetically promoted French intervention in the war and participated in the development of a plan for military action. This brought him enormous popularity in the North American States, where many cities and towns are named after him. In France, Lafayette was elected from the nobility to the Estates General in 1789 and was one of the first to go over to the side of the third estate. Commanded the National Guard. His draft declaration of rights was used by the Constituent Assembly as the basis for the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.” Leader of the constitutionalists. In August 1792, as commander of the Northern Army, he protested against the overthrow of the king. Removed from all posts, he was forced to flee abroad. Returning to France after the coup of the 18th Brumaire, he continued his political activities as a representative of the Liberal Party. During the July Revolution of 1830, he contributed to the accession of Louis Philippe to the throne.
Louis XVI Louis XVI 1754 / 1793 Louis XVI - French king (1774 -1792), from the Bourbon dynasty, succeeded his grandfather Louis XV in 1774, at the same time when ferment in France was increasingly intensifying. The dominance of the two upper classes, the nobility and the clergy, caused acute discontent among the growing bourgeoisie (the so-called third estate). The opposition became stronger and more dangerous for the absolutist state every year. Under the ever-growing influence of this opposition, Louis XVI resorted to a last resort - the convening of the States General, which had not been convened for 175 years. The right to vote was given to all Frenchmen who had reached the age of 25 and paid a certain amount of tax. The Estates General was opened on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. The first weeks were spent in heated debate over the issue of voting. The Third Estate proposed joint meetings and voting; the privileged estates did not agree to this. The disputes came to nothing. On June 17, the Third Estate declares itself, as representatives of 96% of the French people, the National Assembly. 23 June Louis XVI orders restoration old order and voting is carried out according to estates. The National Assembly refuses to comply. After the uprising of July 14, which ended with the capture of the Bastille, Louis XVI approved the decree of the National Assembly on the destruction of feudal orders. Since that time, he no longer actually rules. Alarmed by the rapid change of events, he either adapts to the new order or fights against it by sending secret appeals to foreign powers. .
In June 1791, Louis XVI and his family tried to escape to Lorraine, but were detained in Varennes and returned back. September 14, 1791 Louis XVI takes the oath of the new constitution developed by the National Assembly, but continues to secretly negotiate with foreign states and with French emigrants. Louis's refusal to sanction a decree of the National Assembly directed against emigrants and rebel priests, and the revelation of his connections with foreigners, causes an uprising on August 10, 1792. On September 21, the National Convention opens in Paris. His main decision was to declare France a republic. The Girondins then raise the question of the fate of the king.
On January 16, 1793, by a huge majority of votes (715 out of 748), Louis XVI is found guilty of conspiracy against the freedom of the nation and public safety. Votes were divided on the issue of punishment. 387 deputies voted for the death penalty, 334 voted for shackles, imprisonment or a suspended death penalty. A reprieve was rejected by a majority of 380 votes to 310 death penalty. On January 21, at eleven o'clock in the morning, Louis XVI was beheaded by a guillotine installed on the Place de la Revolution. The severed head of the king was shown to the people who surrounded the place of execution in a dense crowd.
Jean-Paul Marat - politician, one of the leaders of the Jacobins. By profession, he is a doctor and journalist. Before the revolution, he wrote several books and pamphlets on social and natural scientific issues. From September 12, 1789 until the day of his death, Marat published the newspaper “Friend of the People,” which expressed the interests of the Parisian poor. In this newspaper, Marat sharply criticized the Constituent Assembly and the Paris Assembly, for which he was repeatedly persecuted. He was brought to court several times, the newspaper was closed, and the printing houses in which it was published were destroyed. But Marat stubbornly continued his work. For almost two years he had to lead a secret lifestyle, twice temporarily emigrating to England. After the revolution of August 10, Marat stood at the head of the struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins and enjoyed great influence on the affairs of the Commune (Paris municipality), defending the interests of the poor everywhere. Elected deputy of the Convention from Paris. Marat's activities as a member of the Observatory Council of the Commune, leader of the Montagnards in the Convention and publisher of the Friend of the People brought upon him fierce attacks from the propertied classes. On April 14, 1793, at the insistence of the Girondins, he was brought to trial for agitation calling for the dissolution of the Convention, robbery and murder. Under pressure from the Parisian poor, the Revolutionary Tribunal acquitted him on April 24, and Marat was brought back to the Convention in triumph. Together with Robespierre, he led the preparations for the uprising of May 31 - June 2, 1793, which took power from the Girondins. Killed by Charlotte Corday on July 13, 1793 MARAT Jean Paul Marat 1743 / 1793
Marie Antoinette Marie-Antoinette 1755 / 1793 Marie Antoinette - Queen of France, daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I and Maria Theresa. In 1770 she married the future King of France, Louis XVI. Having become queen at the age of 19, she surrounds herself with a very frivolous and scandalous crowd of courtiers, which does not contribute to her popularity in France. She never hid her opposition to the revolution. In 1789 -1793. was accused of having connections with the Austrian court. During the trial and execution she behaved with dignity, which was also noted by the queen’s enemies.
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de MIRABEAU was born on March 9, 1749 at the Château de Bignon in Provence. Mirabeau's parents were the Marquis Victor Riqueti de Mirabeau, a famous economist and wealthy aristocrat, and Marie Genevieve, née de Vassant. Honore Gabriel's early years were overshadowed by discord and property litigation between his parents. Having received a thorough education at home, Mirabeau continued his studies at a private military boarding school in Paris. From a young age, Mirabeau showed adventurism, an unbridled character and a passion for pleasure. From place military service he fled to escape the deceived girl and creditors. The marriage with the wealthy heiress Emilie de Marignan (1772) was unsuccessful, the couple soon separated (their son Victor died in childhood). Struggling with his son's extravagance, the Marquis de Mirabeau achieved the house arrest of Honore Gabriel (1773), his exile, and then imprisonment in the Chateau d'If and the fortress of Jou (1775). From here Mirabeau fled with the wife of the local lord, Marquise Sophie de Monnier, who took with her a significant amount of money (1777). After his arrest and trial, Mirabeau found himself a prisoner of the Château de Vincennes for two years (1778-80). After his release, he appealed his arrest and won the case; At the trial, Mirabeau defended himself, demonstrating a brilliant oratorical gift. Mirabeau owed his growing fame not only to his adventurous adventures and magnificent speeches, but also to his writings. They showed his conviction in educational ideas, extensive erudition, and the light and sharp pen of a publicist. He wrote pamphlets “An Essay on Despotism” (1776) and “On Secret Orders and State Prisons” (1778), where he exposed the arbitrariness of the authorities. .
Mirabeau's fundamental book "The Prussian Monarchy" (1788), written in Prussia, where he was on a diplomatic mission from the government, became famous. Peru Mirabeau owns many pamphlets, articles on economics, history, politics, diplomacy, translations from Homer, Tacitus, Boccaccio. Mirabeau was elected to the Estates General (1789) from the third estate of Provence, supporting its demands for the abolition of class privileges. He immediately becomes one of the most authoritative leaders of the revolution. His voice is constantly heard in the Constituent Assembly, he participates in the development of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and the Constitution; his newspaper “Letters to My Voters” is one of the most read. A staunch supporter of the constitutional monarchy, he saw in it a guarantee of stable power, property and freedom of citizens. At the same time, he enjoyed enormous popularity in the radical circles of Parisian revolutionaries. Mirabeau sought to take a ministerial post in order to strengthen the king's power and curb the development of revolutionary anarchy. He established a secret relationship with the court (April 1790), regularly presenting notes to the king in which he proposed ways to save the monarchy (sincere recognition of the constitution, influencing public opinion through newspapers, strengthening the army). Being on the crest of glory, Mirabeau fell ill and soon died on April 2, 1791. His ashes were buried with the greatest honors in the Pantheon in Paris. However, a year and a half later, Mirabeau’s messages to the king were found in the “iron cabinet” of the Tuileries Palace and became public. The revolutionaries branded Mirabeau as a traitor who played a “double game”, and his remains were taken out of the tomb of great people
Necker Jacques Necker 1732 - 1804 Jacques Necker - Swiss, of German descent, being a wealthy Genevan banker, gained fame in the highest financial spheres and in 1776 was appointed director of the treasury, and in 1777 - general director the entire financial department of the French kingdom. In this post, he tried to bring order to finances by cutting costs and concluding numerous loans. However, seeing the futility of these measures, in 1781 he went to openly publish the budget in order to show that the main source of the deficit was the boundless extravagance of the royal court. The publication of the budget brought upon Necker the indignation of the privileged classes, the nobility and the clergy, and in May 1781 he had to resign. However, in 1788, financial difficulties again forced the government to invite Necker to the post of finance manager. Necker agreed only on the condition that the States General be convened the following year and the Third Estate be given a predominant number of seats in them. In the spring of 1789, during a conflict in the Estates General over the issue of universal or estate voting, Necker sided with the Third Estate. Soon after the opening of the States General, the royal court repented of its concessions and formed a ministry of irreconcilable reactionaries. On July 11, Necker was dismissed with orders to immediately leave Paris. But the uprising of July 12-14, which ended with the capture of the Bastille, again forced the king to call him to the ministry. Constantly oscillating between the interests of the ministry and the demands of the revolutionary third estate, Necker soon lost popularity and in 1790 retired and retired to Switzerland.
Fabre d'Eglantine Philippe-Francois-Nazaire Fabre d'Eglantine 1750 - 1794 Philippe-Francois Fabre d'Eglantine was a provincial actor before the revolution. Having received an award in Toulouse for his play in the form of a golden rose hip (eglantine), he attached its name to his name . During the revolution, he became famous as a poet and playwright, author of popular comedies. Elected to the Convention from Paris, voted for the execution of Louis XVI. A prominent Jacobin, was close to Danton. He was a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and was the chairman of the committee for the development of a new republican calendar. Later took up contracting for the army and quickly became rich. On January 12, 1794, Fabre d'Eglantine was arrested in the East India Company case, convicted along with the Dantonists and guillotined on April 5
Tallien Jean-Lambert Tallien 1767 - 1820 The former printing worker Jean-Lambert Tallien began his political career by participating in the uprising of August 10, after which he was first elected secretary of the Paris Commune and then a deputy of the Convention. He was one of the organizers and an active participant in the extermination of prisoners in Parisian prisons in September 1792 (the so-called “September murders”). He voted for the execution of Louis XVI and decisively sided with the Montagnards against the Girondins. Later, as a member of the Committee of Public Safety, Tallien was sent to southwest France to suppress the uprising in Bordeaux. There he became famous for his bribery, embezzlement and carousing in the company of his mistress Teresa Cabarrus, ex-wife Marquise Fontenay and the daughters of the major Spanish banker Cabarrus. Everyone knew that he took bribes from defendants, that in Bordeaux, by sacrificing your fortune, you could pay off the guillotine, that any passports were issued there for money. Of the fines imposed on the Bordeaux merchants, 1 million 325 thousand francs were allocated for the construction of a hospital, but they did not even begin to build it, and the money disappeared without a trace. At the same time, for the sake of objectivity, it should be noted that
In March 1794, Tallien was recalled to Paris for numerous abuses. After the arrest of Therese, Cabarrus, together with Barras and Fouche, began secretly preparing the overthrow of Robespierre. The conspiracy was successfully carried out on 9 Thermidor. After the fall of Robespierre, Tallien became one of the leaders of the Thermidorians, and achieved the arrest and execution of many members of the Revolutionary Tribunal and his former Jacobin colleagues. After Teresa's release, Cabarrus married her on December 24, 1794. The Parisian salon "Madame Cabarrus" became notorious for its provocative luxury. Under the Directory, Tallien was a member of the Council of Five Hundred, but no longer had the same influence. In 1798 he took part in Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition. Returned to Paris in 1801. In 1814, Tallien welcomed the Bourbon restoration and, during the Hundred Days, the return of Napoleon. After the second restoration in 1815, his request for a pension was rejected, and Tallien spent the rest of his life in poverty.
Fouche Joseph Fouche 1759 / 1820 Joseph Fouche received a spiritual education in his youth, taught in various educational institutions mathematics and philosophy. In 1792 he was elected as a deputy of the Convention from the Lower Loire department. He joined the Montagnards and voted for the execution of Louis XVI. In September-October 1793, he actively carried out de-Christianization in Nevers; in November, together with Collot d'Herbois, he carried out mass terror in Lyon. An active participant in the coup of 9 Thermidor. Minister of Police under the Directory, Napoleon and Louis XVIII. Since 1809 - Duke of Otrante. Died in exile.
Theroigne de Méricourt Theroigne de Méricourt 1762 / 1817 Theroigne de Méricourt (Theroigne de Méricourt) - actually Anna Tervan from the village of Marcourt - one of the figures of the French Revolution (1762-1817). She was brought up in a monastery, where her father, a wealthy peasant merchant, sent her. At the age of seventeen, she disappeared from her parents' house along with some nobleman who seduced her. At the beginning of the revolution, she found herself in Paris and became known to Danton, Mirabeau, Pétion and other revolutionary celebrities who willingly visited her salon. From the time of the storming of the Bastille, T devoted herself entirely to the revolutionary movement. Along with Anacharsis Kloots, she represented the sentimental, ostentatious, theatrical side of the revolution. She was a great admirer of classical republicanism and, in particular, the resurrection of the external trappings of classical antiquity. She dressed in a short cloak, trousers and something like sandals - a costume in which the mythology textbooks of that time depicted the Amazons; She usually appeared in public riding on a huge horse, armed from head to toe. When news of a royalist demonstration at Versailles arrived in Paris, T. uttered a series of fiery philippines against Marie Antoinette, and on October 5, 1789, she rushed ahead of the crowd marching to Versailles. October 6, when royal family taken to Paris, a feeling of pity for the unfortunate queen awoke in her, and she tried to stay close to her in order to protect her from the insults of the crowd. T. was a woman not without oratorical talent, sincerely interested in new ideas, a shallow mind, but lively, kind, unbalanced, she always acted on the first impression. In the first years after the revolution, she was extremely popular in Paris.
She spoke often and a lot in the squares, sometimes also in the Jacobin club. But already at the end of 1790, when Jacobinism began to strengthen, T. de M., with her soft heart and aversion to unnecessary cruelty, was considered inconvenient. It was decided to arrest her because on October 6, 1989, she “played into the hands of the royal party” (that is, did not allow the excesses of the crowd). Warned in time, she flees to Holland, and from there to Lüttich. From Lüttich and Koblenz, denunciations immediately poured in about her to the Austrian government from emigrants who saw in her “a bloodthirsty hetaera, the leader of the Parisian cannibals.” In January 1791 she was arrested and, after being held for several months in prison in Kufstein, she was transported to Vienna. Here Emperor Leopold saw her in person and immediately after the meeting ordered T. to be released. She went to Paris, where the aura of “tyrannical persecution” completely cleared her of the old accusation. In 1792, she was so popular that they even wanted to give her the right to be present in the legislative assembly with an advisory vote; but the proposal made in this sense did not pass. On August 10, T. led a crowd of women and workers; in the dump she recognized a royalist journalist, Sulot, who had repeatedly called her a public woman in print. T. rushed at him and slapped him in the face, after which the crowd chopped Xulo into pieces. T. spoke, however, about the September beatings of 1792 with anger and disgust, after which she began to be received very coldly on the streets. On May 31, 1793, when the question of the fate of the Girondins was being decided, T. appeared in the square near the convention and passionately defended the Girondin party. Many times angry shouts interrupted her, but she did not pay any attention. Having finished her speech, she went into the Tuilerie garden, suddenly several Jacobin women (“tricoteuses de Robespierre”) appeared in the garden, who rushed at T. de M. and subjected her to a painful section with rods. T. de M. immediately went crazy; They put her in a mental home, where she remained until her death.
Fouquier-Tinville Antoine-Quentin Fouquier-Tinville 1746 - 1795 Antoine-Quentin FOUQUIER-TINVILLE was born in the village of Heruel near the city of Seine. Cantenat in Picardy in the family of a small landowner. He lost his father early, but managed to get a good education, then entered the service as a scribe to Cornuillet, a well-known judicial figure at that time. In 1774, he received permission to conduct business independently and for 32,400 livres bought the position of prosecutor in the Chatelet, one of the courts in Paris. The position of prosecutor was considered honorable and brought considerable income. According to the recollections of one of his contemporaries, the young lawyer “especially loved ballerinas, generously distributed money to them and more than once experienced the bitter fruits of debauchery because of them.” After serving as a prosecutor for nine years, Fouquier-Tinville sold his position and began private law practice. On July 14, 1789 (according to him, not confirmed from other sources), Fouquier-Tinville took part in the storming of the Bastille. After the fall of the monarchy on July 10, 1792, when his distant relative Camille Desmoulins was appointed secretary general of the Ministry of Justice, he petitioned him for a position. In his petition, Fouquier-Tinville especially emphasized his poverty and the need to support seven children. Under the patronage of Desmoulins, Fouquier-Tinville was appointed an official of the criminal court created to examine cases related to the coup of August 10. This court did not last long - almost all the defendants died during the “September murders” of 1792. In March 1793, at a meeting of the Fouquier Convention,
Tenville was elected public prosecutor of the revolutionary tribunal (with a salary of 8,000 livres per year). Fouquier-Tinville later claimed that during the existence of the revolutionary tribunal, more than 2,400 accused passed through his hands. Among them is Maria. Antoinette, the Girondins, his relative Camille Desmoulins, the Dantonists and Hébertists. The vast majority of them were sentenced to death. Five days after the overthrow of Robespierre, on 14 Thermidor, 1794, at the suggestion of Freron, the Convention adopted a decree on the arrest of Fouquier-Tinville. The public prosecutor, who suddenly found himself in the role of the accused, himself appeared in the Conciergerie prison. A trial took place a few months later. At the trial, the former public prosecutor behaved confidently and argued that he only scrupulously carried out the law adopted by the Convention. Despite the apparent impeccability of this position, he was sentenced to death. The execution took place on May 7, 1795. The crowd escorted Fouquier-Tinville to the scaffold with shouts, curses and insults. Fouquier-Tinville did not take bribes and left his family in poverty.
Herault de Sechelles Marie-Jean Herault de Sechelles 1759 - 1794 Marie Jean Herault de Sechelles was Advocate General of the Parisian Parliament before the revolution. On July 14, 1789, he took part in the storming of the Bastille. In 1791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly from Paris, then to the Convention from the department of Seine-et-Oise. A prominent Jacobin, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, dealt with foreign policy issues there. The rapporteur of the draft Constitution of 1793. In November 1793, accused of treason and relations with emigrants, he was actually suspended from any activity in the Committee. On March 16, 1794, he was arrested, convicted along with the Dantonists, and on April 5, guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.
Hebert Jacques-René Hebert 1757 - 1794 Hebert Jacques-René was born on November 15, 1757 in Alençon into the family of a jeweler. He studied at a Jesuit school. Later he studied medicine. Arriving in Paris in 1780, he tried many professions. He began as a warehouse superintendent, then earned a living from literature, was hired as a footman, and in 1786 became an usher at the Variety Theater, from where, after some time, he was fired for theft. With the abolition of censorship, Ebert returned to journalism. His newspaper "Père Duchesne" ("Father Duchesne"), which appeared in November 1790, stood out sharply among the sea of printed publications of that time with its rough "sans-culotte language". In French folklore, there was an image of Father Duchesne - a brave, never-dull stove-maker, a joker with a huge pipe in his teeth. Publishing a newspaper on behalf of this character, masterfully using sharp obscene language, knowing no boundaries in his political radicalism, Hébert managed to gain enormous popularity among the Parisian poor. After the royal family's unsuccessful flight, Hébert takes a strong anti-royalist stance and begins a poisonous campaign against Louis XVI. Through the lips of his father, Duchesne calls the king a “fat pig” and a “vile deserter”, declares that he, a simple stove maker, is ready to become a regent. As one of the leaders of the Cordeliers Club and a representative of the Parisian commune, Hébert took part in the preparation of the uprising of August 10, which overthrew the monarchy. After the start of the Convention, in his newspaper he demanded the death sentence of Louis XVI, the removal of the Girondins from the Convention and the creation of a revolutionary government. From December 1792 he became deputy prosecutor of the Paris Commune. Was one of
From December 1792 he became deputy prosecutor of the Paris Commune. He was one of the leaders of the popular uprising of May 31 - June 2, 1793, which forced the Convention to decide to arrest the Girondins. He was the inspirer and one of the ideologists of the campaign to eliminate the influence of the Catholic Church in France and transform church buildings into temples of Reason. At all stages of the revolution, Ebert demanded the liquidation of large property, the destruction of the rich and merchants, the introduction of terror in the most extreme forms, and subsequently, the intensification of terror against everyone whom he considered enemies of the revolution. In March 1794, using the dissatisfaction of the Parisian poor with the lack of food, together with some other leaders of the Cordeliers Club, they called on the people for another armed uprising, “a new May 31st.” Having convinced himself that the General Council of the Paris Commune was not ready for an uprising, he gave up and tried to justify himself. But it's no use. On the night of March 14, the Convention, based on the report of Saint-Just, decides to arrest Hébert and his supporters. A week later the trial took place. Along with the traditional political charges of that time of “conspiracy against the freedom of the French people and an attempt to overthrow the republican government,” Hébert was charged with the ordinary theft of shirts and bed linen. All the accused were
Revolution of 1789--1794 in France it is considered to be a classic bourgeois revolution. It’s not for nothing that they call her the Great. It shook to the core all the foundations of French absolutism, which just before the revolution seemed unshakable to contemporaries; it overthrew all the economic and political foundations of the “old regime” in one of the most powerful powers in Europe.
However, the significance of this revolution is not limited to the scale of just one country and the framework of just one decade. French Revolution of the 18th century. was the largest event in world history and had a significant impact on the entire course of subsequent development of mankind, opening the era of the triumphal march across to the globe the most progressive socio-economic and political system at that time.
The French bourgeois revolution went through three stages in its development:
July 1789 - August 1792 (the period of dominance of the so-called constitutionalists (feuillants) - a bloc of the big financial bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility);
August 1792 - June 1793 (the period of domination of the Girondins - more radical layers of the large and medium-sized commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, mainly provincial);
June 1793 - July 1794 (the period of dominance of a wide bloc of revolutionary democratic forces, the so-called Jacobins, who objectively reflected the interests of the petty, partly middle bourgeoisie, artisans, and peasantry).
Thus, at each subsequent stage of the revolution, it was led by an increasingly radical group. This gives grounds to assert that the general tendency of the revolution is its development in an ascending line.
The fall of the Jacobins, who by the summer of 1794 had exhausted their revolutionary potential and lost the support of the broad masses, returned the big bourgeoisie to power. However, neither this event nor the numerous coups that followed it, embodied in frequent changes state forms and political regimes, could not return France to its pre-revolutionary state - so radical and irreversible were the changes that occurred in such a short historical period, which turned out to be the revolutionary five-year period.
Political movements of the Great French Revolution.
Cordilleras
(French Club des Cordeliers) - a political club during the era of the French Revolution, first known as the Club of Friends of Human Rights; gathered in the suburb of Saint-Antoine (French Saint-Antoine), in the old monastery of the Cordeliers (or, otherwise, Franciscans), which is why it got its name. Here at first only conversations took place about moral and political issues, but soon the burning issues of the day began to be passionately discussed. In their principles, the Cordeliers agreed with the Jacobins, participated in their meetings and decisions, and only wanted “to realize the concepts of freedom and equality on a larger scale, to create democracy on the broadest basis.”
This club was led by Jean Paul Marat, Georges Jacques Danton and Camille Desmoulins. Also belonging to him were Théroigne de Mericourt and Anacharsis Kloots.
The Cordeliers did not have such a strong organization and discipline as, for example, the Jacobins: their meetings were disorderly, their debates were not alien to outside influences, for example, the influence of the Duke of Orleans; but, relying on the lower classes, from among which new members were usually chosen, they formed (especially on June 20 and August 10, 1792 and in the early days of the Republic) a fairly strong “party of action.” Even earlier, in 1791, they drew up a petition for the overthrow of the king and laid it on the Champ de Mars, on the altar of the fatherland, inviting all citizens to sign it.
Little by little, the Cordelier Club weakened and finally merged with the Jacobins.
Girondins
(Girondins) - one of the political parties during the French Revolution. The party received its name (sometimes replaced by the name "Gironde", la Gironde) from the department of the Gironde (with the main city of Bordeaux), which in October 1791 sent local lawyers Vergniaud, Guade, Jeansonnet, Grangnev and the young merchant Ducos, a circle, to the legislative assembly as deputies which was the original grain of the party. It was soon joined by Brissot and his group (the Brissotians), Roland, Condorcet, Faucher, Isnard and others. Supporters of individual freedom, admirers of Rousseau's democratic political theory, who very soon began to speak out in a republican spirit, ardent defenders of the revolution they wanted moved even beyond the borders of France, J. were distinguished by remarkable eloquence, but showed neither organizational talent nor party discipline.
Jacobinians
(French Jacobins) - members of the Jacobin Club (club des Jacobins), a French political club of the revolutionary era, who established their dictatorship in France in 1793-1794.
The club was formed in June 1789 on the basis of the Breton faction of deputies of the National Assembly and received its name from the location of the club's meetings in the Dominican monastery of St. James on Rue Saint-Jacques in Paris. Members of the club itself, as well as members of provincial clubs closely associated with the main one, were considered Jacobins. The club had a huge influence on the course of the French Revolution of 1789: the revolution grew and developed, fell and disappeared in connection with the fate of this club. During their reign, the Jacobins carried out a number of radical reforms and launched mass terror. The Jacobin Party included:
- - the right wing, whose leader was Danton,
- - center headed by Robespierre,
- - left wing, led by Marat (and after his death by Hébert and Chaumette).
Until 1791, club members were supporters of a constitutional monarchy. The Jacobins (mainly supporters of Robespierre) participated in the Convention, where they advocated the unity of the country, strengthening national defense in the face of counter-revolution and harsh internal terror; by 1793 they became the most influential force in it. Having overthrown the Girondins on June 2, 1793, and later dealt with the Hébertists and Dantonists, the Jacobins had a strong influence on the minds of Parisians until the fall of Robespierre as a result of the coup of 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794). After the death of the Jacobin leaders, the persecution of the Jacobins by the Thermidorians and the royalists who raised their heads after Thermidor, the Jacobin Club was closed in November 1794. The motto of the "Society of Friends of the Republic, One and Indivisible" (the official name of the Jacobin Club) was "Vivre libre ou mourir" - "Live free or die."
Since the 19th century, the term has been used not only to refer to club members and their allies, but also as the name of a radical political movement.
The Jacobin dictatorship took a number of measures aimed at finally undermining the feudal system, completely eliminating all surviving seigneurial rights and assigning the land they worked to the peasants. She established the fixed prices and maximum wages required by the sans-culottes, and carried out a billion-dollar forced loan from the rich. She continued her attack on the Catholic Church and introduced the Republican calendar. In 1793, a constitution was adopted, which was based on universal suffrage, however, its introduction was postponed due to the critical situation of the republic, and as a result it did not take place.
The Jacobin dictatorship demonstrated a complete denial of liberal principles, revealing an example of state intervention in various spheres of social life. Industrial production and agriculture, finance and trade, public celebrations and the private life of citizens - everything was subject to strict regulation. However, it was unable to contain the further deepening of the economic and social crisis.
The Great Revolution ended the Age of Enlightenment, but it also largely determined the political and social processes of the next century, far beyond the borders of France itself.
“The only legitimate purpose of every political
association is general happiness. Whatever
were the claims of those in power, any consideration
must yield to this higher law."
Jean Paul Marat
“True justice is the only thing I
I worship on the ground."
From the newspaper "Drugnarod" 1789
Nowadays, many peoples are still only dreaming of sovereignty, of the rule of law, of the democratic rights of man and citizen, of personal and public freedoms, of the kingdom of reason and justice. All these sacred principles were put forward by the Great French Revolution. For the sake of all this, immortal friends - the Montagnards - lived, suffered, fought and died. One of them was Marat, he was inspired by a noble concern for the good of humanity and fought to make people live better. That's why Marat became the hero of my work.
Jean Paul Marat was born on May 24, 1743 in the small town of Boudry, in the principality of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. He received a good education in the house of his father, a fairly famous doctor. At the age of 16 he left his father's house, lived in France, Holland, Ireland and England, studied medicine, physics and philosophy. In 1773 he published a two-volume work on physiology, “Philosophical Experience on Man,” which was followed by a number of others. scientific works. In 1775, Marat’s pamphlet “Chains of Slavery” was published (in England) - an outstanding political work directed against absolutism and the English parliamentary system and putting forward the ideas of armed uprising and armed dictatorship. In 1776, Marat moved to Paris and settled on the Old Dovecote Street, where he gained fame for his medical practice and scientific research in physics. At the beginning of the revolution, Marat abandoned his scientific studies, devoting himself to serving the rebellious people.
In 1789, Marat published the brochures “A Gift to the Fatherland” and “Additions”, where he developed the idea of the need to unite all social progressive forces to fight against absolutism.
Since September 1789, Marat published the newspaper “Friend of the People,” which gained popularity as a militant organ of revolutionary democracy, and was widely read. He writes in the newspaper: “I feel disgust for disorder, violence, unbridledness; but when I think
that there are currently fifteen million people in the kingdom who are ready to die from
hunger; when I think that the government, having brought them to this terrible fate, without regret throws them to the mercy of fate... - my heart contracts with pain and trembles with indignation. I am aware of all the dangers to which I am exposed by ardently defending the cause of these unfortunates; but fear will not stop my pen; More than once I have already given up worries about my existence for the sake of serving my fatherland, for the sake of revenge on the enemies of humanity and, if necessary, I will give my last drop of blood for them.”
Marat was the first to predict the approach of revolution. He believes that his duty as a Friend of the people is to awaken the consciousness of the people, inspire in them faith in their strength and raise them to fight: “Unhappy people!.. Mourn, mourn your unhappy fate: you will fully deserve all its horror “If you turn out to be so cowardly that you cannot resort to the means of salvation available to you, it is in your hands!” This salvation lies in revolutionary actions, in mass protests of the people. The will of the people, supported by the force of arms, is the leading force in the revolutionary process. “Friend of the People” puts forward a whole program of practical revolutionary measures: “cleansing” of the Constituent Assembly, “cleaning” the Parisian and provincial municipalities of people hostile to the revolution, convening popular assemblies and the nomination by the people of new, worthy representatives to the renewed National Assembly or to the new legislative body that should come to replacement of the first and unworthy National Assembly.
On the pages of the newspaper he consistently defends the tasks of developing the revolution, tearing off the masks from those who, under the cover of false and hypocritical phrases, sought to slow down its further progress. Marat predicted the betrayal of the revolution by J. Necker, O. Mirabeau, then M. J. Lafayette and waged an irreconcilable struggle against them at a time when they were still at the zenith of their glory. With the same decisiveness, he later denounced the double-mindedness and half-heartedness of the policy of the Girondins, which ultimately led them to positions hostile to the revolution.
Persecution by the authorities and persecution from political opponents forced Marat to leave for Great Britain in January 1799; Returning the same year, he went into hiding and published a newspaper underground.
Giving priority attention political issues, Marat also developed the social problems of the revolution, firmly and
consistently protecting the interests of the people and their poorest strata. This gained him immense popularity among the masses.
In 1792, Marat was elected to the Convention. He took his place at the head of the Montagnards and became the main target of the Girondin speakers. In an effort to consolidate all revolutionary forces for victory over the interventionists, he renamed the newspaper “Friend of the People” into “Newspaper of the French Republic”, proclaiming a new course in it - the oblivion of party differences and the unification of all forces in the name of saving the republic. However, the Girondins did not accept his proposal. In April 1793, Marat, contrary to his legal immunity as a deputy, according to the resolution of the Convention, which the Girondins achieved, was arrested and tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal; but he was acquitted and returned in triumph by the people to the Convention.
All the deputies, the entire Convention stood up and applauded Marat. Jean-Paul Marat rose to the podium and said: “Lawmakers, the testimonies of patriotism and joy that broke out in this hall are a tribute to one of your brothers, whose sacred rights were violated in my person. I was treacherously accused, the solemn verdict brought the triumph of my innocence, I offer you my sincere heart, and I will continue to defend the rights of man, citizen and people with all the energy given to me by heaven.” Marat’s first biographer, Alfred Bujar, wrote: “The outcome of Marat’s trial turned out to be exactly the opposite of what his accusers had hoped for; they wanted to kill Marat; and now - he is even greater than ever. Yesterday he was a writer, a deputy - today he became a banner.”
Marat and M. Robespierre, who led the Jacobins, led the preparation of the popular uprising of May 31 - June 2, 1793, which overthrew the government of the Gironde. There is a version that on the night of June 1-2, he himself climbed the tower to be the first to sound the alarm calling for an uprising. Throughout the decisive three days, Marat was in the thick of things. In the Convention, in the Commune, in the Committee of Public Safety - he intervened everywhere in the struggle, gave advice to the participants in the uprising, directed their activities, demanding that the uprising be brought to complete victory. The victory of the popular uprising on May 31–June 2 was a great victory for the Mountain. It was also a great victory for Marat. Over the course of two recent years Together with his brothers in arms - the Jacobins - Marat waged a cruel, merciless struggle against the Gironde, which turned into a party of counter-revolution and national treason. The French people, with their great revolutionary actions, reaffirmed that they are following
the intrepid Jacobin party and its most beloved leader, who was called by the respectful and affectionate name - Friend of the People.
A serious illness prevented Marat from actively participating in the activities of the Convention after the establishment of the Jacobin dictatorship. On July 13, 1793, the life of the fiery revolutionary was tragically cut short: Charlotte Corday, associated with the Girondins, killed him with a dagger.
The legacy of the Great French Revolution is majestic and grandiose! She gave the world a complex of ideas of social and human progress, democracy.
Marat's life path became an example for many generations of revolutionary fighters.
I liked Marat because he was humane, he was not afraid of anyone or anything, he persistently followed his own path, boldly saying what his conscience told him.
Korneev Andrey
Bibliography:
1. Encyclopedic Dictionary. Volume XVIIIa. St. Petersburg 1896
Printing house Efron I.A. and Brockhaus F.A.
2. A. Manfred “Marat”. Moscow, Publishing House "Young Guard" 1962
3. Series “Life of Remarkable People”
Nick. Molchanov "Montagnards"
Moscow, Publishing House "Young Guard" 1989
MIRABEAU (9 March 1749 - 2 April 1791)
The name of Count Honore Gabriel Ricchetti de Mirabeau became quite widely known long before the start of the French Revolution. The young aristocrat's reputation was scandalous. He became famous for his dizzying love affairs, escapes from creditors, and wild lifestyle. In secular circles he was nicknamed “Don Juan of the century.”
Life of the French nobility of the 18th century. was, of course, very far from the ideals of humility and renunciation of the joys of life. But few people challenged conventional hypocrisy and sanctimonious norms as boldly as the Comte de Mirabeau. And this did not go unpunished.
In those days, any Frenchman, aristocrat or commoner, could be thrown into prison for many years without any trial. One decree of the king was enough, not even public, but secret.
The king's secret decrees haunted Mirabeau again and again. Several years of imprisonment, exile, and arrests instilled in him a deep hatred of tyranny and lawlessness.
In 1774, 25-year-old Mirabeau wrote An Essay on Despotism. In this serious political work, he called on his fellow citizens to boldly fight against tyranny. Two years later, Mirabeau published this work in London without a signature (in France, publication of this kind was impossible at that time).
Count de Mirabeau entered the maelstrom of events of the French Revolution as a mature, fully formed man. He was 40 years old.
The elections to the Estates General, announced by the king in 1788, took place from three estates - the nobility, the clergy and the so-called “third estate”. At first, Mirabeau tried to stand as a candidate from the nobility of Provence, to which he belonged. He was received very coldly. Then he decided to be elected from the third estate. In order to enter the ranks of this class, he even had to open a trading shop. In his speeches, Mirabeau demanded decisive reforms and the adoption of a constitution. With his speeches, candidate for deputy Mirabeau gained increasing popularity in Provence. In this he was helped by an amazing gift of eloquence and a powerful voice. People were especially struck by the fact that this passionate denouncer of the vices of the nobility belonged to one of the most noble families of Provence. In Marseilles, the crowd threw flowers at him, exclaiming: “Glory to Mirabeau, the father of the fatherland!” People unharnessed the horses from his carriage and drove him through the streets themselves. After his election, an honorary escort with torches accompanied him to the very border of Provence.
Class 7th gradeTopic: The Great French Revolution in faces.
The purpose of the lesson : to form an idea of the role of the individual in the revolutionary events of France at the endXVIII century
Tasks : Educational : Explore the contributions of five major figures to the major events of the French Revolution
Developmental : ability to reason, analyze, work with additional material, textbook, formulate conclusions
Educating : : respect for the history of another state, the ability to listen to one’s classmates, the ability to work in a group
Lesson equipment: textbook, computer, presentation, video clip, additional Handout, operating algorithm and evaluation criteria, interactive whiteboard.
Lesson type lesson in the formation of new knowledge with elements project activities
Methods, working methods: reproductive, partially search and design method
During the classes:
Organizing time.
Updating knowledge.
In previous lessons we studied the main periods of the French Revolution and first let's remember the events of each period:
Stage (named by teacher)
Events (students answer)
1.The period of constitutional monarchy (1789-1792)
The main driving force is the big aristocratic bourgeoisie (representatives are the Marquises of Mirabeau and Lafayette). In 1791, the first French Constitution was adopted (1789).
2. Girondist period (1792-1793).
August 10, 1792 the monarchy fell, King LouisXVIand the royal family were arrested, the Girondins came to power. In September 1792, a new Constituent Assembly was convened - the National Convention. However, the Girondins were in the minority in the Convention. Also represented at the Convention were the Jacobins, representatives of the interests of the petty bourgeoisie. The majority in the Convention was the so-called “swamp”, on whose position the fate of the revolution actually depended.
3. Jacobin period (1793-1794).
On May 31-June 2, 1793, power passed from the Girondins to the Jacobins, the Jacobin dictatorship was established, and the republic was strengthened. Second Constitution.
4.Thermidorian period (1794-1795).
In July 1794, as a result of the Thermidorian coup, the Jacobins were overthrown and their leaders were executed. The French Revolution marked a conservative turn.
5.The Directory period (1795-1799).
In 1795, a new French Constitution was adopted. A Directory was established - the head of state, consisting of five directors. The Directory was overthrown in November 1799 as a result of the Brumaire coup led by General Napoleon Bonaparte. This marked the end of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution of 1789-1799.
Goal setting.
All the stages of the revolution that we have listed are also connected with the activities of specific people. And since we already know the main stages of the revolution, guess what we have to study today at the final stage of the French Revolution?
Student answers
Today we have to study the contribution famous people France in the development of revolutionary events.
Our work will consist of carrying out mini-projects and protecting them, but first we will determine which personality will be covered by which group. I offer you several statements, and your task is to find out from the statement of one of the leaders of the revolution.
The main question is that almost all the prominent figures of the revolution believed that their lives were not lived in vain. Explain their position.We will return to this issue at the end of the lesson.
Portrait one
This educated man tried to solve all problems in a civilized manner, without bloodshed. His words sounded like this: “This great revolution will happen without atrocities and without tears.” He became the spokesman for the hopes of the third estate. His oratory was unsurpassed.(Count Honore Gabriel de Mirabeau)
Portrait two
The day after the storming of the Bastille he became commander of the National Guard. At the beginning of the revolution his popularity was very great.(Gilbert de Lafayette)
Portrait three
This man was one of the most popular Jacobins among the people; hiscalled a Friend of the People. He was awarded this honor for his energetic defense of the cause of the revolution on the pages of the newspaper of the same name. He became a journalist during the years of the revolution; he was previously a doctor and scientist.(Jean Paul Marat)
Portrait four
As a result of hard work on himself, inspired by a high goal, he turned from an ordinary lawyer into an eloquent speaker, statesman, and visionary politician. He considered the implementation of his ideas about the republic, about revolution, about morality to be the sacred duty of humanity. This man knew no mercy or leniency towards his opponents. (Maximilian Robespierre)
Portrait five
This figure in the Convention was the leader of the group of moderates, orlenient. A talented lawyer, he had brilliant oratory skills. (Georges Danton)
So, you start working in a group and your main task, when defending your mini-project, is to highlight the contribution of your figure to the development of revolutionary events.
The groups make up a mini-project: on the tables there is an algorithm for working on a mini-project, criteria for evaluating the group’s work by the leader, additional material, a portrait of the figure.
Discovery of new knowledge.
Work on drawing up a mini-project – 8-10 minutes
Study additional material
Highlight the main thing
Draw up a mini-project
Defense of a mini-project – 2-3 minutes
2 people from the group protect the work
Consolidation and conclusion of the lesson.
So, we got to know in more detail some of the most prominent representatives of revolutionary France and now we will return to the main question of the lesson, but first, let’s look at a video clip that confirms the idea that the lives of these great representatives of the revolution were not given in vain.
Video fragment
Let's go back toThe main question: did all the bright figures of the revolution believe that their lives were not lived in vain? Explain their position.
Reflection . "I. We. Case"
"I"
"We"
"Case"
Are you satisfied with your work in class.....
How much my classmates helped me.......
Did you understand the material, did you learn more.....
Grading group leaders.
Homework.§ 25-27, preparing for the test
