As a consequence of the idea of work of art as about a somewhat delimited space, displaying in its finiteness an infinite object - the world external to the work, is the attention to the problem of artistic space.
When we deal with visual (spatial) arts, this becomes especially obvious: the rules for displaying the multidimensional and unlimited space of reality in the two-dimensional and limited space of the picture become its specific language. For example, the laws of perspective as a means of displaying a three-dimensional object in its two-dimensional image in painting become one of the main indicators of this modeling system.
However, we can consider not only pictorial texts as some delimited spaces. The special nature of the visual perception of the world, inherent in man and resulting in the fact that the denotations of verbal signs for people in most cases are some spatial, visible objects, leads to a certain perception of verbal models. The iconic principle, visibility are inherent in them in full.
We can make some mental experiment: let's imagine some extremely generalized concept, completely abstracted from any specific features, some everything, and try to determine for ourselves its features. It is easy to see that these signs for most people will have a spatial character: "infinity" (that is, the relation to the purely spatial category of the border; moreover, in the everyday consciousness of most people, "infinity" is only a synonym for a very large size, enormous extent), the ability have parts. The very concept of universality, as shown by a number of experiments, for most people has a distinctly spatial character.
Thus, the structure of the space of the text becomes a model of the structure of the space of the universe, and the internal syntagmatics of the elements inside the text becomes the language of spatial modeling.
The question, however, does not come down to this. Space is “a set of homogeneous objects (phenomena, states, functions, figures, values of variables, etc.), between which there are relationships similar to ordinary spatial relationships (continuity, distance, etc.). At the same time, considering a given set of objects as space, one abstracts from all the properties of these objects, except for those that are determined by these space-like relations taken into account.
Hence the possibility of spatial modeling of concepts that in themselves do not have a spatial nature. This property of spatial modeling is widely used by physicists and mathematicians. The concepts of "color space", "phase space" underlie spatial models widely used in optics or electrical engineering. This property of spatial models is especially essential for art.
Already at the level of supertextual, purely ideological modeling, the language of spatial relations turns out to be one of the main means of understanding reality. The concepts of "high - low", "right - left", "close - far", "open - closed", "delimited - undelimited", "discrete - continuous" turn out to be material for building cultural models with completely non-spatial content and acquire meaning : "valuable - invaluable", "good - bad", "one's own - someone else's", "accessible - inaccessible", "mortal - immortal", etc.
The most general social, religious, political, moral models of the world, with the help of which a person at different stages of his spiritual history comprehends the life around him, turn out to be invariably endowed with spatial characteristics, sometimes in the form of opposition "heaven - earth" or "earth - underworld" (vertical three-membered structure, organized along the top - bottom axis), either in the form of a certain socio-political hierarchy with a marked opposition of "tops" to "bottoms", then in the form of a moral marked opposition of "right - left" (expressions: "our cause is right", " put the order to the left").
Ideas about “lofty” and “humiliating” thoughts, occupations, professions, the identification of “close” with understandable, one’s own, kindred, and “far” with incomprehensible and alien - all this adds up to some models of the world, endowed with distinctly spatial features.
Historical and national-linguistic models of space become the organizing basis for building a "picture of the world" - an integral ideological model inherent in this type of culture. Against the background of these constructions, the spatial models created by this or that text or a group of texts become significant and private. So, in Tyutchev's lyrics, "top" is opposed to "bottom", in addition to the interpretation common to a very wide range of cultures in the system "good - evil", "heaven - earth", also as "darkness", "night" - "light", "day", "silence" - "noise", "unicolor" - "variegation", "greatness" - "vanity", "peace" - "fatigue".
A distinct model of the world order, oriented vertically, is being created. In a number of cases, “top” is identified with “space”, and “bottom” with “crampedness”, or “bottom” with “materiality”, and “top” with “spirituality”. The world of the "bottom" - daytime:
Oh how piercing and wild
How hateful to me
This noise, movement, talk, clicks
Young, fiery day!
In the poem "The soul would like to be a star" - an interesting variation of this scheme:
Soul would like to be a star
But not when from the midnight sky
These luminaries, like living eyes,
They look at the sleepy world of the earth, -
But during the day, when, hidden like smoke
scorching sunbeams,
They, like deities, burn brighter
In the ether pure and invisible.
The contrast between "up" (heaven) and "down" (earth) here receives, above all, a private interpretation. In the first stanza, the only epithet referring to the semantic group of the sky is “living”, and the earth is “sleepy”. If we recall that "sleep" for Tyutchev is a stable synonym for death, for example:
There are twins - for terrestrial
Two deities, then Death and Sleep,
Like a brother and sister wonderfully similar ... -
then it will become obvious: here "up" is interpreted as the sphere of life, and "down" - death. Such an interpretation is stable for Tyutchev: the wings that lift up are invariably “alive” (“Ah, if the living wings of the soul soaring above the crowd ...” Or: “Mother nature gave him two powerful, two living wings” ). For the earth, the usual definition is "ashes":
Oh, this South, oh, this Nice! ..
Oh, how their brilliance disturbs me!
Life is like a shot bird
Wants to get up but can't...
There is no flight, no scope -
Broken wings hang
And all of her, clinging to the dust,
Trembling with pain and impotence ...
Here "brilliance" - the brightness, variegation of the southern day - is in the same synonymous row with "dust" and the impossibility of flight.
However, the "night" of the first stanza, spreading both to heaven and earth, makes possible a certain contact between these opposite poles of Tyutchev's structure of the world. It is no coincidence that in the first stanza they are connected by the verb of contact, although it is one-sided ("look at"). In the second stanza, the "day" on earth does not apply to the entire universe. It covers only the “bottom” of the world. The scorching sun's rays "like smoke" envelop only the earth. At the top, inaccessible to the eyes (“invisible” - and this cut off the possibility of contacts), night reigns. Thus, "night" - eternal state"top" - only periodically characteristic of the "bottom", the earth. And this is only in those moments when the "bottom" is deprived of many of its inherent features: variegation, noise, mobility.
We do not set ourselves the goal of exhausting Tyutchev's picture of the spatial structure of the world - we are now interested in something else: to emphasize that the spatial model of the world becomes in these texts an organizing element around which its non-spatial characteristics are built.
Let us give an example from the lyrics of Zabolotsky, in whose work spatial structures also play a very important role. First of all, it should be noted the high modeling role of the opposition "up - down" in Zabolotsky's poetry. At the same time, “up” always turns out to be a synonym for the concept of “distance”, and “down” - “proximity”. Therefore, any movement is, ultimately, a movement up or down. Movement, in fact, is organized by only one - vertical - axis. So, in the poem "Dream", the author in a dream finds himself "in a voiceless area." The world around him first of all receives the characteristics of the distant ("I sailed away, I wandered away") and remote (very strange).
Bridges in the sky
They hung over the gorges of failures ...
The earth is far below:
The boy and I went to the lake,
He threw a fishing rod somewhere down
And something that flew from the earth,
Slowly, he pushed it away with his hand.
This vertical axis simultaneously organizes the ethical space: for Zabolotsky, evil is invariably located at the bottom. Thus, in The Cranes, the moral coloring of the “up-down” axis is extremely naked: evil comes from below, salvation from it is a rush upwards:
Black gaping muzzle
Rose up from the bushes
………………….
And, echoing a sorrowful sob,
The cranes took off into the air.
Only where the lights move
In atonement for your own evil
Nature has given them back
What death took with it:
Proud spirit, high aspiration,
The will to fight...
The combination of high and far and the opposite characteristic of “bottom” make “up” the direction of expanding space: the higher, the more limitless the space, the lower, the tighter. The end point of the bottom combines all the space that has disappeared. It follows from this that movement is possible only at the top and the opposition "up - down" becomes a structural invariant not only of the antithesis "good - evil", but also "movement - immobility". Death - the cessation of movement - is a downward movement:
And the leader in a shirt made of metal
Slowly sinking to the bottom...
In "Bigfoot" familiar to the art of the XX century. spatial scheme: the atomic bomb, like death from above, is destroyed. The hero - "Bigfoot" - is brought up, and atomic death comes from below, and dying, the hero falls down:
They say that somewhere in the Himalayas,
Above temples and monasteries,
He lives, unknown to the world
Primitive fosterling of animals.
…………………
The catacombs are hidden in the mountains,
He doesn't even know what's underneath
Atomic bombs are falling
Loyal to their masters.
Will never reveal their secrets
This Himalayan troglodyte,
Even if, like an asteroid,
All blazing, it will fly into the abyss.
However, the concept of movement in Zabolotsky is often complicated due to the complication of the concept of "bottom". The fact is that for a number of Zabolotsky's poems, "bottom" as an antithesis to the top - space - movement is not the end point of lowering. Associated with death, the retreat into the depths, located below the usual horizon of Zabolotsky's poems, unexpectedly causes signs reminiscent of some properties of the "top". The absence of frozen forms is inherent in the top - the movement is interpreted here as a metamorphosis, a transformation, and the possibilities of combinations are not provided here in advance:
I remember well appearance
All these bodies floating out of space:
Interlacing of forms, and bulges of plates,
And the wildness of primitive decoration.
There's no subtlety to be seen,
The art of forms is clearly not held in high esteem there ...
This re-decomposition of earthly forms is at the same time an incorporation into the forms of a more general cosmic life. But the same applies to the underground, posthumous way human body. In an address to dead friends, the poet says:
You are in a country where there are no ready-made forms,
Where everything is scattered, mixed, broken,
Where instead of the sky - only a grave hill ...
Thus, the earth's surface, the everyday space of everyday life, acts as a motionless opposition to the "top". Above and below it, movement is possible. But this movement is understood specifically. The mechanical movement of unchanging bodies in space is equated with immobility, mobility is a transformation.
In this regard, a new significant opposition is put forward in Zabolotsky's work: immobility is equated not only with mechanical movement, but also with any uniquely predetermined, completely determined movement. Such a movement is perceived as slavery, and freedom is opposed to it - the possibility of unpredictability (in terms of modern science, this opposition of the text could be represented as an antinomy: redundancy - information).
Lack of freedom, choice is a feature of the material world. It is opposed by the free world of thought. Such an interpretation of this opposition, characteristic of the entire early and a significant part of the poems of the late Zabolotsky, determined his reckoning of nature with the lower, immobile and slave world. This world is full of melancholy and lack of freedom and opposes the world of thought, culture, technology and creativity, which gives choice and freedom to establish laws where nature dictates only slavish execution:
And the wise man will leave, thoughtful,
And he lives as unsociable,
And nature, instantly bored,
Like a prison stands over him.
Animals don't have names.
Who ordered them to be called?
Uniform suffering -
Their invisible lot.
………………
All nature smiled
Like a high prison.
The same images of nature are preserved in the work of the late Zabolotsky. Culture, consciousness - all types of spirituality are involved in the "top", and the bestial, uncreative principle is the "bottom" of the universe. In this regard, the spatial solution of the poem "Jackals" is interesting. The poem is inspired by the real landscape of the southern coast of Crimea and, at the level of the reality described by the poet, gives a given spatial arrangement - the sanatorium is located below, by the sea, and the jackals howl above, in the mountains. However, the spatial model of the artist conflicts with this picture and makes adjustments to it.
The sanatorium belongs to the world of culture - it is like an electric ship in another poem of the Crimean cycle, about which it is said:
Giant swan, white genius
An electric ship stood on the road.
He stood over the vertical abyss
In triple consonance of octaves,
Fragments of a musical storm
From the windows generously scattered.
He was trembling from this storm,
He was in the same key with the sea,
But he gravitated towards architecture,
Raise the antenna on your shoulder.
He was a manifestation of meaning in the sea ...
Therefore, the sanatorium standing by the sea is called “high” (cf. the electric ship “above the vertical abyss”), and the jackals, although they are in the mountains, are placed at the bottom of the top:
Only up there, along the ravines...
The lights don't go out all night.
But, having placed the jackals in the "ravines of the mountains" (a spatial oxymoron!), Zabolotsky supplies them with "twins" - the quintessence of the base animal essence - placed even deeper:
And the animals along the edge of the stream
Cowardly run into the reeds,
Where in stone holes deep
Their doppelgangers rage.
Thinking invariably appears in Zabolotsky's lyrics as a vertical ascent of liberated nature:
And I, alive, wandered over the fields,
Entered the forest without fear
And the thoughts of the dead as transparent pillars
Around me rose to the skies.
And Pushkin's voice was heard over the foliage,
And Khlebnikov's birds sang near the water.
………………
And all existences, all nations
Imperishable kept being,
And I myself was not a child of nature,
But her thought! But her unsteady mind!
All forms of immobility: material (in nature and life of a person), mental (in his mind) - is opposed by creativity. Creativity frees the world from the slavery of predetermination. It is the source of freedom. In this regard, a special concept of harmony arises. Harmony is not ideal correspondences of ready-made forms, but the creation of new, better correspondences. Therefore, harmony is always the creation of human genius. In this sense, the poem "I am not looking for harmony in nature" is Zabolotsky's poetic declaration. It is no coincidence that he put her in first place (violating chronological order) in the collection of poems 1932 - 1958. Human creativity is a continuation of the creative forces of nature.
There is also a greater and a lesser spirituality in nature;
the lake is more ingenious than the “slum” surrounding it, it “burns aspiring to the night sky”, “the bowl of clear water shone and thought with a separate thought” (“Forest Lake”).
Thus, the main axis "top - bottom" is realized in texts through a number of variant oppositions.
Such is the general system of Zabolotsky. However, a literary text is not a copy of the system: it consists of significant fulfillments and significant non-fulfillments of its requirements. Precisely because the described system of spatial relations organizes the overwhelming majority of Zabolotsky's texts, deviations from it become especially significant.
In the poem "Opposition of Mars" - unique in Zabolotsky's work, since the world of thought, logic and science appears here as soulless and inhuman - we find a completely different structure of artistic space. The opposition "thought, consciousness - everyday life" is preserved (as well as the identification of the first with "top", and the second with "bottom"). However, quite unexpectedly for Zabolotsky, "a spirit full of reason and will" receives a second definition: "devoid of heart and soul." Consciousness acts as a synonym for evil and the brutal, anti-human principle in culture:
And the shadow of evil consciousness
Crooked vague features,
Like an animal spirit
He looked at the ground from above.
The world of everyday life, home, presented in the form of familiar things and objects, turns out to be close, humane and kind. The destruction of things - almost the only time with Zabolotsky - turns out to be evil. The invasion of war and other forms of social evil is presented not as an attack of the elements, nature on the mind, but as an inhuman invasion of the abstract into the private, material, everyday life of a person. It is not accidental, as it seems, that Pasternak's intonation is here:
War with a gun at the ready
In the villages, she burned houses and things
And drove families into the woods.
The personified abstraction of war collides with the material and real world. At the same time, the world of evil is a world without details. It has been transformed on the basis of science, and all "little things" have been removed from it. He is opposed by the "untransformed", confusing, illogical world of earthly reality. Coming closer to traditional democratic ideas, Zabolotsky, contrary to the semantic structures prevailing in his poetry, uses the concept of “natural” with a positive sign:
Bloody Mars from the blue abyss
Looked carefully at us.
………………
Like an animal spirit
He looked at the ground from above.
The spirit that built the channels
For ships unknown to us
And glassy stations
Among the Martian cities.
Spirit full of mind and will,
Devoid of heart and soul
Who does not suffer pain from a stranger,
To whom all means are good.
But I know what is in the world
One small planet
Where from century to century
Other tribes live.
And there is pain and sorrow
And there is food for passions,
But the people there did not lose
Natural souls.
………………
And this small planet -
My unfortunate land.
It is noteworthy that in this text, so unexpected for Zabolotsky, the system of spatial relations changes dramatically. "High", "distant" and "vast" opposes "low", "close" and "small" as evil to good. "Heaven", "blue abyss" are included in this model of the world with a negative value. Verbs whose meaning is directed from top to bottom carry negative semantics. It should be noted that, unlike other texts by Zabolotsky, the “upper” world is not presented as fluid and mobile: it is frozen, fixed in its logical inertia and immobility. It is no coincidence that not only harmony, consistency, completeness, but also hard color contrast are attributed to him:
Bloody Mars from the blue abyss.
The earthly world is a world of transitions and color halftones:
So golden waves of light
Floating through the darkness of being.
As we can see, the spatial structure of this or that text, realizing spatial models of a more general type (creativity of a certain writer, this or that literary movement, this or that national or regional culture), is always not only a variant common system, but also conflicts with it in a certain way, deautomatizing its language.
Along with the concept of "top - bottom", an essential feature that organizes the spatial structure of the text is the opposition "closed - open". The closed space, being interpreted in the texts in the form of various everyday spatial images: houses, cities, homeland - and endowed with certain signs: “native”, “warm”, “safe”, opposes the open “external” space and its signs: “foreign”, "hostile", "cold". Opposite interpretations are also possible.
In this case, the boundary will become the most important topological feature of the space. The boundary divides the entire text space into two mutually non-intersecting subspaces. Its main property is impenetrability. The way in which a text is divided by a boundary is one of its essential characteristics. It can be a division into friends and foes, the living and the dead, the poor and the rich.
Another thing is important: the border dividing the space into two parts must be impenetrable, and the internal structure of each of the subspaces must be different. So, for example, space fairy tale distinctly divided into "house" and "forest". The boundary between them is distinct - the edge of the forest, sometimes - the river (the battle with the snake almost always takes place on the "bridge"). The heroes of the forest cannot enter the house - they are assigned to a certain space. Terrible and miraculous events can happen only in the forest.
The fixing of certain types of space for certain heroes in Gogol is very clear. The world of old-world landowners is fenced off from the outside by numerous concentric protective circles(“circle” in “Vie”), which should strengthen the impenetrability of the internal space. It is no coincidence that the multiple repetition of words with the semantics of a circle in the description of the Tovstogubov estate: “Sometimes I like to go for a minute into the sphere of this unusually secluded life, where not a single desire flies over the palisade surrounding a small courtyard, over the wicker garden filled with apple trees and plums, beyond village huts surrounding it ... ". The barking of dogs, the creaking of doors, the opposition of the warmth of the house to the external cold, the gallery surrounding the house, protecting it from the rain - all this creates a zone of impregnability for hostile external forces. On the contrary, Taras Bulba is the hero of an open space.
The narrative begins with a story about leaving the house, accompanied by the breaking of pots and household utensils. The unwillingness to sleep in the house only begins a long series of descriptions that testify to the belonging of these characters to the world of open space: "... having lost a house and a roof, a man became brave here ...". The Sich has not only walls, gates, fences - it constantly changes its place. "Nowhere in sight was a fence<...>. A small shaft and a notch, not guarded by anyone, showed terrible carelessness.
It is no coincidence that the walls appear only as a force hostile to the Cossacks. In the world of a fairy tale or "Old-world landowners" evil, death, danger come from the outside, open world. It is protected from it by fences and constipation. In "Taras Bulba" the hero himself belongs to the outside world - the danger comes from the closed, internal, delimited world. This is a house in which you can "get drunk", comfort. The very security of the inner world is fraught with a threat for a hero of this type: it can seduce him, lead him astray, attach him to a place, which is tantamount to treason. Walls and fences do not look like protection, but like a threat (the Cossacks "did not like to deal with fortresses").
The case when the text space is divided by some border into two parts and each character belongs to one of them is the main and simplest one. However, more complicated cases are also possible: different heroes not only belong to different spaces, but are also associated with different, sometimes incompatible types of division of space. One and the same world of the text is divided in different ways in relation to different heroes.
There appears, as it were, a polyphony of space, a game different types their membership. So, in "Poltava" there are two non-intersecting and incompatible worlds: the world of a romantic poem with strong passions, the rivalry of the father and lover for Mary's heart and the world of history and historical events. Some heroes (like Mary) belong only to the first world, others (like Peter) only to the second. Mazepa is the only character included in both.
In "War and Peace" the clash of various characters is at the same time a clash of their inherent ideas about the structure of the world.
Two others are closely connected with the problem of the structure of artistic space: the problem of plot and point of view.
Lotman Yu.M. Structure artistic text- M., 1970
The plot and composition of the text
The plot is the dynamic side of the form of a literary work.
Conflict is an artistic contradiction.
The plot is one of the characteristics of the artistic world of the text, but not only it will accept a list of signs by which one can quite accurately describe the thin. the world of the work is quite wide - spatio-temporal coordinates - chronotope, figurative structure, dynamics of the development of the action, speech characteristics and others.
Art world- subjective model of objective reality.
Hood. the world of each work is unique. It is a complexly mediated display of the author's temperament and worldview.
Hood. world- display of all facets of creative individuality.
The specificity of literary representation is movement. And the most adequate form of expression is the verb.
Action, as an event unfolding in time and space or a lyrical experience, is what constitutes the basis of the poetic world. This action can be more or less dynamic, deployed, physical, intellectual or mediated, BUT it must be present.
Conflict as the main driving force of the text.
Hood. the world in its entirety (with spatial and temporal parameters, population, elemental nature and general phenomena, the expression and experience of the character, the author's consciousness) does not exist as a disorderly heap .... but as a harmonious expedient cosmos in which the core is organized. COLLISION or CONFLICT is considered to be such a universal core.
Conflict is a confrontation of a contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within a character, underlying the action.
It is the conflict that forms the core of the theme.
If we are dealing with a small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of a single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.
PLOT = /PLOT (not equal)
Plot elements:
Conflict- an integrating rod around which everything revolves.
The plot least of all resembles a solid, continuous line connecting the beginning and end of the series of events.
Plots break down into various elements:
Basic (canonical);
Optional (grouped in a strictly defined order).
The canonical elements are:
exposure;
climax;
Action development;
vicissitudes;
Interchange.
The optional ones are:
Retreat;
ending;
Title;
exposition(lat. - presentation, explanation) - a description of the events preceding the plot.
Main functions:
Introducing the reader to the action;
Orientation in space;
Presentation of actors;
Depiction of the situation before the conflict.
Outset - an event or group of events that directly leads to a conflict situation. It can grow out of exposure.
The development of action is the whole system of sequential deployment of that part of the event plan from the beginning to the denouement, which directs the conflict. It can be calm or unexpected turns (ups and downs).
The moment of the highest tension of the conflict is decisive for its resolution. After that, the development of the action turns to the denouement.
In "Crime and Punishment" the climax - Porfiry comes to visit! Talk! That's what Dostoevsky himself said.
The number of climaxes can be large. It depends on the storylines.
Resolution is an event that resolves a conflict. Tells together with the finale of dramas. or epic. Works. Most often, the ending and the denouement coincide. In the case of an open ending, the denouement may recede.
The importance of the final final chord is realized by all writers.
"Strength, artistic, the blow comes to an end"!
The denouement, as a rule, correlates with the plot, echoes it with some kind of parallelism, completing a certain compositional circle.
Optional plot elements(not the most important):
Title (only in fiction);
Most often, the main conflict is encoded in the title (Fathers and Sons, Thick and Thin)
The title does not leave the bright field of our consciousness.
Epigraph (from Greek - inscription) - can stand at the beginning of the work, or parts of the work.
The epigraph establishes hypertextual relations.
An aura of related works is formed.
Retreat is an element with a negative sign. There are lyrical, journalistic, etc. used to slow down, slow down the development of action, switch from one storyline to another.
Internal monologues - play a similar role, as they are turned to themselves, to the side; reasoning of the characters, the author.
Plug-in numbers - play a similar role (in Eugene Onegin - songs of girls);
Insert stories - (about Captain Kopeikin) their role is an additional screen that expands the panorama of the artistic world of the work;
The final. As a rule, it coincides with the denouement. Finishes the work. Or replaces the junction. Texts with open endings do without a denouement.
Prologue, epilogue (from Greek - before and after what has been said). They are not directly related to the action. They are separated either by a period of time, by graphic means of separation. Sometimes they can be wedged into the main text.
Epos and drama - plot; and lyrical works do without a plot.
Subjective organization of the text
Bakhtin considered this topic for the first time.
Any text is a system. This system involves something that seems to defy systematization: the consciousness of a person, the personality of the author.
The consciousness of the author in the work receives a certain form, and the form can already be touched, described. In other words, Bakhtin gives us an idea of the unity of spatial and temporal relations in a text. It gives an understanding of one’s own and another’s word, their equality, an idea of “an endless and final dialogue in which not a single meaning dies, the concepts of form and content converge, through understanding the concept of worldview. The concepts of text and context converge, and it affirms the integrity of human culture in the space and time of earthly existence.
Korman B. O. 60-70s 20th century developed ideas. He established a theoretical unity between terms and concepts, such as: author, subject, object, point of view, someone else's word, and others.
The difficulty lies not in the selection of the narrator and the narrator, but in UNDERSTANDING THE UNITY BETWEEN CONSCIOUSNESS. And the interpretation of unity as the final author's consciousness.
Consequently, in addition to understanding the importance of the conceptual author, a synthesizing view of the work and the system was required and appeared, in which everything is interdependent and finds expression primarily in formal language.
Subjective organization is the correlation of all the objects of the narrative (those to whom the text is assigned) with the subjects of speech and the subjects of consciousness (that is, those whose consciousness is expressed in the text), this is the ratio of the horizons of consciousness expressed in the text.
At the same time, it is important to take into account 3 point of view plan:
Phraseological;
Space-time;
Ideological.
Phraseological plan:
As a rule, it helps to determine the nature of the speaker of the statement (I, you, he, we or their absence)
Ideological plan:
It is important to clarify the relationship between each point of view and with the artistic world, in which it occupies a certain place, and from other points of view.
Space-time plan:
(See Canine Heart Analysis)
It is necessary to allocate distance and contact 9 according to the degree of remoteness), external and internal.
In characterizing the subjective organization, we inevitably come to the problem of the author and the hero. Considering different aspects, we come to the ambiguity of the author. Using the concept of "author" we mean a biographical author, the author, as a subject of the creative process, the author in his artistic embodiment (the image of the author).
Narration is a sequence of speech fragments of text containing various messages. The subject of the story is the narrator.
The narrator is an indirect form of the author's presence inside the work, performing an intermediary function between the fictional world and the recipient.
The hero's speech zone is a collection of fragments of his direct speech, various forms of indirect speech transmission, fragments of phrases, characteristic phrases, emotional assessments characteristic of the hero that fell into the author's zone.
Important features:
Motif - repeating text elements that have a semantic load.
Chronotope - the unity of space and time in a work of art;
Anachrony - violation of the direct sequence of events;
Retrospection - shifting events into the past;
Prospection - a look into the future of events;
Ups and downs - a sudden sharp shift in the fate of the character;
Landscape - a description of the external, in relation to the person of the world;
Portrait - an image of the hero's appearance (figure, posture, clothes, facial features, facial expressions, gestures);
Distinguish between a description of a portrait, a portrait of comparison, a portrait of an impression.
- The composition of a literary work.
This is the ratio and arrangement of parts, elements in the composition of the work. Architectonics.
Gusev "The Art of Prose": a composition of reverse time ("Easy breathing" by Bunin). Composition of direct time. Retrospective (“Ulysses” by Joyce, “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov) - different eras become independent objects of the image. Forcing phenomena - often in lyrical texts - Lermontov.
Compositional contrast (“War and Peace”) is an antithesis. Plot-compositional inversion ("Onegin", "Dead Souls"). The principle of parallelism is in the lyrics, "Thunderstorm" by Ostrovsky. Composite ring - "Inspector".
Composition of figurative structure. The character is in interaction. There are main, secondary, off-stage, real and historical characters. Ekaterina - Pugachev are bound together through an act of mercy.
Composition. This is the composition and a certain position of parts of the elements and images of works in time sequence. It carries a meaningful and semantic load. External composition- the division of the work into books, volumes / is of an auxiliary nature and serves for reading. More meaningful nature elements: prefaces, epigraphs, prologues, / they help to reveal the main idea of the work or identify the main problem of the work. Internal- includes Various types descriptions (portraits, landscapes, interiors), non-plot elements, set episodes, all kinds of digressions, various forms of characters' speech and points of view. The main task of the composition- the decency of the image of the artistic world. This decency is achieved through a kind of compositional techniques - repeat- one of the most simple and real, it makes it easy to round off the work, especially the ring composition, when a roll call is established between the beginning and end of the work, it has a special artistic meaning. Composition of motives: 1. motives(in music), 2. opposition(unification of repetition, opposition is given by mirror compositions), 3. details, installation. 4. default,5. point of view - the position from which stories are told or from which the events of the characters or the narrative are perceived. Viewpoint types Key words: ideal-integral, linguistic, temporal-temporal, psychological, external and internal. Composition types: simple and complex.
Plot and plot. Categories of material and reception (material and form) in the concept of VB Shklovsky and their modern understanding. Automation and removal. Correlation of concepts "plot" And "plot" in the structure of the artistic world. The significance of the distinction between these concepts for the interpretation of the work. Stages in the development of the plot.
The composition of a work as its construction, as the organization of its figurative system in accordance with the concept of the author. The subordination of the composition to the author's intention. Reflection in the composition of the tension of the conflict. Art of composition, composition center. The criterion of artistry is the correspondence of the form to the concept.
Artistic space and time. For the first time, Aristotle connected "space and time" with the meaning of a work of art. Then ideas about these categories were carried out: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their work, "space and time" has established itself as the foundation of literary categories. In any thin work inevitably reflects real time and space. As a result, a whole system of spatio-temporal relations is formed in the work. The analysis of "space and time" can become a source of study, the author's worldview, his aesthetic relations in reality, his artistic world, artistic principles and his creativity. In science, there are three types of "space and time": real, conceptual, perceptual.
.Artistic time and space (chronotope).
It exists objectively, but it is also subjectively experienced differently by people. We perceive the world differently than the ancient Greeks. artistic time And artistic space, this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organize the composition. artistic space represents a model of the world of the given author in the language of his space of representations. In the novel Dostoevsky this is ladder. At symbolists mirror, in lyrics Pasternak window. Characteristics artistic time And space. Is them discreteness. Literature does not perceive the entire flow of time, but only certain essential moments. discreteness spaces are usually not described in detail, but are indicated using individual details. In lyrics, space can be allegorical. The lyrics are characterized by the imposition of different time plans of the present, past, future, etc. artistic time And space symbolically. Basic spatial symbols: house(image of a closed space), space(image of open space), threshold, window, door(border). In modern literature: railway station, airport(places of decisive meetings). artistic space May be: dotted, voluminous. artistic space Romano Dostoevsky- This stage platform. Time moves very fast in his novels, and Chekhov time stopped. Renowned physiologist Wow Tomsky combines two Greek words: chronos- time, topos- place. In concept chronotope- a spatio-temporal complex and believed that this complex is reproduced by us as a single whole. These ideas had a great influence on M. Bakhtin, who in the work “Forms of time and chronotope” in the novel explores chronotope in novels of different eras since antiquity, he showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other. Sometimes the author violates the time sequence “for example, the Captain's daughter”. X character traitschronotope in 20th century literature: 1. Abstract space instead of a concrete one having a symbol, meaning. 2. Uncertain place and time of action. 3. The character's memory as the internal space of unfolded events. The structure of space is built on opposition: top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, etc. Time structure: day-night, spring autumn, light-darkness, etc.
2. Lyrical digression - expression by the author of feelings and thoughts in connection with the depicted in the work. These digressions allow readers to take a deeper look at the work. Digressions slow down the development of the action, but lyrical digressions naturally enter the work, imbued with the same feeling as artistic images.
Opening episodes - stories or short stories that are indirectly related to the main plot or not related to it at all
Artistic appeal - a word or phrase used to name persons or objects to which speech is specifically addressed. Can be used on its own or as part of a sentence.
PHILOSOPHY
Vestn. Ohm. university 2011. No. 1. S. 50-52.
UDC 101.091-1 N.G. Zenets
Omsk State Medical Academy
THE SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SPACE OF LITERARY DISCOURSE
The modern relationship between philosophy and literature is characterized by an unprecedented blurring of the boundaries between these phenomena. The threat of loss of independence of philosophy, the danger of its transformation into a kind of literary discourse actualized the search for a new foundation that would allow preserving the autonomy of philosophical thought, capable of existing in different spiritual spaces, in particular in the literary one. Such a basis, in our opinion, can be the “subject of philosophizing”.
Keywords Keywords: subject of philosophizing, thinker, philosopher, explication, literary space, philosophy.
The changes now taking place in the spiritual space are characterized by an unprecedented blurring of the boundaries between philosophy, science, art, and literature. “Everything changed in the 20th century, and especially in the last decades of this century. In the cultural consciousness of the era, interdisciplinarity as a way of thinking begins to take shape and more and more thoroughly determine the general atmosphere of spiritual life, which has captured almost all types of humanitarian knowledge» . Philosophy, which acted as a "beacon" (L. Fink), a kind of guide to the spiritual life of society, has lost its former role. In the new conditions of existence, she faced the problem of self-determination. Why? Philosophy is now difficult to distinguish from other forms of humanitarian knowledge, such as art, literature, psychology, linguistics, which in turn gave rise to the idea that the modern space of spiritual creativity is a space without borders, here "canons, the rules of traditional genre forms are transformed into one 'nomadic unity'".
20th century marked by the flourishing of marginal genres that exist at the intersection of literature and philosophy, art and philosophy, philosophy and poetics, philosophy and linguistics, etc. Already French philosophy from Montaigne to Deleuze can be fully attributed to the competence of literature. It is no coincidence that A. Camus, characterizing the current situation, ironically remarked: "If you want to be a philosopher, write a novel." And Arthur Danto called philosophy a "genre of literature." This process clearly indicates a profound transformation of the relationship between literature and philosophy.
© N.G. Zenets, 2011
The subject of philosophizing in the space of literary discourse
Does philosophy retain its independence as a unique phenomenon, or has it been swallowed up by a comprehensive literary discourse? Philosophy and literature did not have a strict border before. Let us recall, for example, Plato, Titus Lucretius Kara, German romantic philosophers, whose “poetic word” was and remains at such a height that we have the right to speak of their work as literary. "Every great philosopher is also a great writer." It was no accident that the great philosopher Bergson received Nobel Prize on literature. And Nietzsche? Philosopher or thinker? Both. And even Hegel, with his "philosophy of history, reveals a brilliant gift for writing." At the same time, many representatives of literary creativity can rightfully be considered philosophers. “Indeed, there are writers and poets who piercingly feel the philosophical essence of the world - Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Goethe, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Kafka, Proust, Joyce, Musil, Borges and many others, who undoubtedly enriched not only literature, but also philosophy".
The literary space today is an immense variety of forms of literary thought-creation, which includes philology, linguistics, and literary criticism with its numerous thought experiments, which sometimes cannot be distinguished from philosophical ones. “If we ask ourselves,” writes V.A. Dear, who are E. Panofsky or A. Riegl, who are J. Bataille or M. Blanchot, or the same W. Eco, pure art critics, semioticians or literary critics? One can say about them that they are well-trained researchers, with a high philosophical culture.
The space that arose on the border between the four areas of experience (philosophy, literature, art, science) demanded a new “figure of thought”. This new figurant of thought, which, being a universal mediator, removes any “specially philosophical”, guild or administrative-opportunistic definition of philosophy and literature, is the figure of an intellectual thinker. But who is this "thinker"? The thinker is least of all a specialist, he is an anti-specialist.
The thinker personifies a very mysterious kind of activity, because in essence all people are thinking beings, but a few can be said to be thinkers. The thinker cannot be fully identified with the philosopher. A philosopher, as a rule, is one who owns a special technology of thinking, a system of knowledge, a philosophical methodology.
But a "thinker" is not a sage either. The sage is in spiritual peace, his thought has found a foothold, he knows and owns the truth and coordinates his life with it, while the thinker is in constant search, he seeks and finds. The thinker, in our opinion, is none other than the "subject of philosophizing."
It may seem strange to choose such a concept as the “subject of philosophizing” (for more, see Art.:), since the term “subject” itself has recently been actively expelled from philosophical discourse. A “random individual” began to claim his place, not bearing responsibility even for himself. The thinker cannot be a random individual, he is the one who takes responsibility for the “life” of thought, for the occurrence of acts of philosophizing, which is understood as “real philosophy” (M. K. Ma-mardashvili). Lately acts of philosophizing occur more often in literature, in science, in art than in philosophy. The reason for this is ideological lack of freedom and the influence of mass culture. The preservation of philosophy at the present time as an independent unique phenomenon is, first of all, the preservation of the “philosophizing” itself as a “subject of philosophizing”. The subject of philosophizing can be a writer, and a poet, and a writer, and an artist, and a scientist, if he "holds" the "act of philosophizing" by himself.
It is the act of philosophizing that confirms the presence of philosophy in the world, but it declares itself through the subject of philosophizing, who is able to express it in words. The act of philosophizing is evidence of the “existential experience of consciousness” that has taken place (M. Mamardashvili). “The experience in question is the experience of meeting with the “alternative” that does not have a cash being, when the fullness of being is experienced, where everything is possible.
N.G. Zenets
the possibilities to think about the world are immediately open, although each thinker discovers this "fullness" for himself in his own way ... This experience equalizes all philosophers, poets, mystics and scientists, no matter how they are separated from each other; if you already got to this place (the source of revelations and creations), then they all stay there together and are one. Therefore, philosophy can be found in different spiritual spaces, if this experience turns into an act of philosophizing, i.e., clothed in thought and word. At such a moment, in the words of Plato, there is a “reversal of the eyes of the soul”, the thinker, as it were, acquires a “philosophical vision”, i.e., becomes the subject of philosophizing. This “reversal of the eyes of the soul” can happen to a philosopher, as well as to a writer and a literary critic, so the act of philosophizing can be found in different spiritual spaces. And in this case, all great writers and scientists can be subjects of philosophizing. After all, they talk about the philosophy of Dante, Petrarch, Goethe, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Kafka, Proust. What allows these writers and poets to be also subjects of philosophizing? Perhaps the experience of being that they experienced and expressed in the artistic word, or that this experience of being was explicated and expressed by someone as an act of philosophizing. In our opinion, it's both. Literary creativity, no matter how great it is, always remains literary, until there is a meeting with philosophical thought. It is philosophical thought that is able to revive the existential experience of consciousness in a literary work and express it in the act of philosophizing. From this moment on, the author of a literary work also becomes the subject of philosophizing. So, the philosopher M. Mamardashvili turned M. Proust into the subject of philosophizing, and M. Heidegger -
Hölderlin. Philosophical thought, like a torch, is capable of kindling a kindred fire - the fire of thought in any spiritual space, if the existential experience of consciousness took place there. The appearance of such a figurant of thought as the “subject of philosophizing”, on the one hand, made it possible to explain the phenomenon of such thinkers as S.S. Averintsev, M.L. Gasparov, Yu.M. Lotman, L.M. Andreev, P.A. Grintzer and others, whose work cannot be attributed in the literal sense to either literature or philosophy; as well as “at one time M.M. Neither the philologists, for whom he was too much of a "philosopher," nor the philosophers, for whom he was too much of a "literary critic," considered Bakhtin as one of their own. And on the other hand, the introduction of such a concept as the “subject of philosophizing” makes it possible to preserve philosophy as an independent holistic phenomenon and, at the same time, open to various spiritual areas that it constantly masters.
LITERATURE
Variety of genres of philosophical discourse / ed. ed. IN AND. Plotnikov. Yekaterinburg, 2009.
Deleuze J. difference and repetition. SPb., 1998.
Danto A. Philosophy as (and) of Literature // Post-Analytic Philosophy. Ed. by I. Ranchman and C. West. N.Y., 1985.
Philosophy and Literature: Problems of Mutual Relations: Proceedings of the "Round Table" // Vopr. philosophy. 2009. No. 9.
Kolesnikov A.S. Philosophy and Literature: Modern Discourse // History of Philosophy, Culture and Worldview. SPb., 2000. P.101.
Akhutin A.V. In the country of Mamardashvili // Vopr. philosophy. 1996. No. 7.
Zenets N.G. Man as a subject of philosophical thought-creation // Personality. Culture. Society: Intern. w-l social. and humanitarian. Sciences. 2009. Vol. 11. Issue. 1. No. 46-47. pp. 258-263.
Artistic space and time (chronotope)- space and time depicted by the writer in a work of art; reality in its space-time coordinates.
Artistic time is an order, a sequence of actions in the worst. work.
Space is a collection of little things in which an artistic hero lives.
Logically connecting time and space create a chronotope. Every writer and poet has his favorite chronotopes. Everything obeys this time and heroes and objects and verbal actions. And yet, the main character is always in the foreground in the work. The larger the writer or poet, the more interesting they describe both space and time, each with their own specific artistic techniques.
The main features of space in a literary work:
- It does not have direct sensual authenticity, material density, visibility.
- Perceived by the reader associatively.
The main signs of time in a literary work:
- Greater concreteness, immediate certainty.
- The desire of the writer to converge artistic and real time.
- Concepts of motion and immobility.
- Relationship between past, present and future.
| Images of artistic time | a brief description of | Example |
| 1. Biographical | Childhood, youth, maturity, old age | "Childhood", "Boyhood", "Youth" L.N. Tolstoy |
| 2. Historical | Characteristics of the change of eras, generations, major events in the life of society | "Fathers and Sons" I.S. Turgenev, "What to do" N.G. Chernyshevsky |
| 3. Space | The concept of eternity and universal history | "Master and Margarita" M.A. Bulgakov |
| 4. Calendar |
Change of seasons, weekdays and holidays |
Russian folk tales |
| 5. Daily allowance | Day and night, morning and evening | "The tradesman in the nobility" Zh.B. Molière |
Category of artistic time in literature
In various systems of knowledge, there are various ideas about time: scientific-philosophical, scientific-physical, theological, everyday, etc. The plurality of approaches to identifying the phenomenon of time has given rise to the ambiguity of its interpretation. Matter exists only in motion, and motion is the essence of time, the comprehension of which is largely determined by the cultural makeup of the era. So, historically, in the cultural consciousness of mankind, two ideas about time have developed: cyclic and linear. The concept of cyclic time goes back to antiquity. It was perceived as a sequence of events of the same type, the source of which were seasonal cycles. Completeness, repetition of events, the idea of return, indistinguishability between beginning and end were considered characteristic features. With the advent of Christianity, time began to appear to human consciousness as a straight line, the vector of movement of which is directed (through relation to the present) from the past to the future. Linear type time is characterized by one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness, its movement is perceived as a duration and sequence of processes and states of the surrounding world.
However, along with the objective, there is also a subjective perception of time, as a rule, depending on the rhythm of the events taking place and on the characteristics of the emotional state. In this regard, they single out objective time, which refers to the sphere of the objectively existing external world, and perceptual time, to the sphere of perception of reality by an individual. So, the past seems to be longer if it is rich in events, while in the present it is the other way around: the more meaningful its filling, the less noticeable the flow. The waiting time for the desired event is painfully lengthened, for the undesirable - painfully shortened. Thus, time, influencing the mental state of a person, determines his course of life. This happens indirectly, through experience, thanks to which a system of units for measuring time intervals (second, minute, hour, day, day, week, month, year, century) is established in the human mind. In this case, the present acts as a constant reference point that divides the course of life into past and future. Literature, in comparison with other forms of art, can handle real time most freely. Thus, at the will of the author, a shift in time perspective is possible: the past appears as the present, the future as the past, and so on. Thus, obeying the creative intent of the artist, the chronological sequence of events can reveal itself not only in typical manifestations, but also, in conflict with the real flow of time, in individual authorial manifestations. Thus, the modeling of artistic time may depend on genre-specific features and trends in literature. For example, in prose works, the present tense of the narrator is usually set conditionally, which correlates with the narrative about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. Multidirectionality, reversibility of artistic time is characteristic of modernism, in the depths of which the novel of the “stream of consciousness” is born, the novel of “one day”, where time becomes only a component of the psychological existence of a person.
In individual artistic manifestations, the flow of time can be deliberately slowed down by the author compressed, curtailed (actualization of instantaneity) or completely stopped (in the depiction of a portrait, landscape, in the author's philosophical reflections). It can be multidimensional in works with intersecting or parallel storylines. Fiction, belonging to the group of dynamic arts, is characterized by temporal discreteness, i.e. the ability to reproduce the most significant fragments, filling in the resulting “voids” with formulas such as: “several days have passed”, “a year has passed”, etc. However, the idea of time is determined not only by the author's artistic intention, but also by the picture of the world in which he creates. For example, in ancient Russian literature, as noted by D.S. Likhachev, there is not such an egocentric perception of time as in the literature of the 18th - 19th centuries. “The past was somewhere ahead, at the beginning of events, a number of which did not correlate with the subject perceiving it. The "rear" events were the events of the present or the future. Time was characterized by isolation, unidirectionality, strict observance of the real sequence of events, constant appeal to the eternal: "Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in depicting the highest manifestations of being - the divine establishment of the universe." Along with the event time, which is an immanent property of the work, there is the author's time. "The author-creator moves freely in his time: he can start his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time."
The author's time varies depending on whether he takes part in the events depicted or not. In the first case, the author's time moves independently, having its own storyline. In the second - it is motionless, as if concentrated at one point. The event time and the author's time can differ significantly. This happens when the author either overtakes the course of the narrative, or lags behind, i.e. follows the events "on the heels". There can be a significant time gap between the time of the narration and the time of the author. In this case, the author writes either from memories - his own or someone else's.
In a literary text, both the time of writing and the time of perception are taken into account. Therefore, the author's time is inseparable from the reader's time. Literature as a form of verbal-figurative art presupposes the presence of an addressee. Usually, reading time is an actual (“natural”) duration. But sometimes the reader can be directly included in the artistic fabric of the work, for example, acting as the "narrator's interlocutor". In this case, the reading time is displayed. “Depicted reading time can be long and short, sequential and inconsistent, fast and slow, intermittent and continuous. It is mostly depicted as the future, but it can be present and even past.
The nature of performing time is rather peculiar. It, as Likhachev notes, merges with the time of the author and the time of the reader. In essence, this is the present, i.e. time of performance of a piece. Thus, in literature, one of the manifestations of artistic time is grammatical time. It can be represented with the help of aspect tense forms of the verb, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a specific time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent the plan of the present in the text).
Bakhtin M.M.: “The signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.” The scientist identifies two types of biographical time. The first one, influenced by the Aristotelian doctrine of entelechy (from the Greek “completion”, “fulfillment”), calls “characterological inversion”, based on which the completed maturity of character is the true beginning of development. The image of human life is given not within the framework of an analytical enumeration of certain traits and characteristics (virtues and vices), but through the disclosure of character (actions, deeds, speech and other manifestations). The second type is analytical, in which all biographical material is divided into: public and family life, behavior in war, attitude towards friends, virtues and vices, appearance, etc. The biography of the hero according to this scheme is made up of events and cases at different times, since a certain trait or property of character is confirmed by the most striking examples from life, which do not necessarily have a chronological sequence. However, the fragmentation of the temporary biographical series does not exclude the integrity of the character.
MM. Bakhtin also singles out folk-mythological time, which is a cyclic structure that goes back to the idea of eternal repetition. Time is deeply localized, completely inseparable “from the signs of the native Greek nature and will take on the“ second nature ”, i.e. will accept native regions, cities, states. Folk-mythological time in its main manifestations is characteristic of an idyllic chronotope with a strictly limited and enclosed space.
Artistic time is determined by the genre specifics of the work, the artistic method, the author's ideas, as well as by the literary movement or direction in which this work was created. Therefore, the forms of artistic time are distinguished by variability and diversity. “All changes in artistic time add up to a certain general line of its development, connected with the general line of development of verbal art as a whole.” The perception of time and space in a certain way is comprehended by a person precisely with the help of language.
Space is one of the main manifestations of reality that a person encounters as soon as he begins to realize himself and cognize the world. At the same time, it is perceived by him as something existing outside, around a human observer, a viewer located in the center of space. It is filled with things, people, it is objective and anthropocentric.
The most important characteristics of space, usually noted by researchers of this category:
1. Anthropocentricity - connection with the thinking subject, perceiving environment and aware of space, and with his point of view.
2. Alienation from a person, understanding him as a receptacle, outside of which a person is located.
3. The circular form of the organization of space, in the center of which there is a person.
4. Objectivity - the filling of space with things, objects (in broad sense words).
5. Continuity and extent of space, the presence of varying degrees of remoteness: near and far space.
6. Limited space: closed - open.
8. Three-dimensionality: top - bottom, front - back, left - right.
9. Inclusion of space in temporal movement.
The dualism of space perception is manifested in the tradition of conveying its distinct properties in the form of oppositions, verbal pairs with opposite meanings, which can also have stable evaluative (positive or negative) connotations: top - bottom, high - low, sky-earth, right - left , far - close, east - west, etc.
In a literary text, on the one hand, all the essential properties of space as an objective existential category are reflected, because the real world is reflected in the text. On the other hand, the representation of space in each individual literary text is unique, since imaginary worlds are recreated in it by creative thinking, the author's fantasy. It can be argued that the author's objective-subjective idea of space is embodied in a literary text.
Thus, the literary and artistic image of space has psychological and conceptual foundations. As Yu. M. Lotman convincingly showed, artistic space is an individual model of the world of a certain author, an expression of his spatial ideas. It's a continuum where characters are placed and action is taken. It, in his opinion, is not of a physical nature, since it is not a passive receptacle for heroes and plot episodes, not a hollow vessel. To characterize the literary and artistic space, the nature and parameters of the objects that fill the space around the subject matter: it can be closed, limited by the body of the subject (microcosm) or the nearest boundaries (house, room, etc.), or it can be open, extended, panoramic (macrocosm). It can also be compressed, narrowed and expanded, enlarged.
Taking into account, firstly, the degree and nature of the object content of the literary and artistic space; secondly, the explicitly (implicitly) expressed nature of the interaction between the subject and the surrounding space; thirdly, the focus, the point of view of the observer, including the author and the character, we propose to distinguish the following types of literary and artistic space:
1. Psychological (closed in the subject) space; when recreating it, one observes immersion in the inner world of the subject, while the point of view can be either rigid, fixed, static, or mobile, conveying the dynamics of the inner world of the subject. In this case, the nominations of the sense organs usually act as localizers: heart, soul, etc. - see, for example, A. N. Apukhtin's poem "Your tear":
Your tear rolled after a tear,
Your soul was shrinking young
Listening to the speech of false and alien ...
And at that moment I could not fall, sobbing,
In front of you!
Your tear has penetrated heart to me,
And all that was bitter, sick
Hidden in the depths of the heart -
Under this tear surfaced again,
As in a terrible dream!
It's not the first time a storm is gathering
And the soul did not know the fear of her!
Now I'm trembling... Timid eyes
They look somewhere in the distance ... where they fell
Your tear!
2. Close to real geographic space , including it can be a specific place, habitable environment: urban, rural, natural. The point of view can be either rigid, fixed, or moving. This is a planar linear space, which can be directed and non-directional, horizontally limited and open, near and far, as, for example, in S. Yesenin's poem "Goy you, Russia, my dear ...":
Goy you, Rus', my dear,
Huts - in the robes of the image ...
No end in sight -
Only blue sucks eyes.
Like a wandering pilgrim,
I watch your fields.
And at the low outskirts
Poplars wither loudly.
Smells like apple and honey
In the churches, your meek Savior.
And buzzes behind the bark
There is a cheerful dance in the meadows.
I'll run along the wrinkled stitch
To the freedom of the green lekh,
Meet me like earrings
A girlish laugh will ring out.
If the holy army shouts:
"Throw you Rus', live in paradise!"
I will say: “There is no need for paradise,
Give me my country."
In this text, the image of the space of the native country, close and dear to the lyrical subject, is recreated - the space of an open, boundless (No end in sight...). It is filled with objects characteristic of Rus', from the author's point of view: Huts - in robes of the image ...; In the churches, your meek Savior. The color picture of the space of the native country is represented by blue and in green: ... Only blue sucks his eyes; I'll run along. stitch On the freedom of the green leh. Given and sensual-olfactory picture of space: Smells like apple and honey. The space is filled with joy, fun: And buzzing behind the tree-tree In the meadows, a merry dance; To meet me, like earrings, A girl's laughter will ring. In the author's perception, the geographical space of the native country in terms of value is likened to paradise.
3. Point, internally limited space : house, room, ward, etc. This is the space of a particular place, which has visible boundaries, the space is observed. The point of view can be either static or dynamic. Let us turn to I. Irtenyev's poem "Bus":
There is a bus going down the street
A lot of people ride in it.
Everyone has their own worries.
Everyone has their own destiny.
Here is a dash builder engineer.
He builds for people at home,
And in every house that they built,
He invested a part of his soul.
And next to him in the big southwest
The brave whaler rides.
He sperm whales mercilessly
Strikes with a cast-iron harpoon.
And next to him is a worker.
His eyes are on fire.
He fulfilled the four norms,
And I would like - I could and six.
And next - a woman gives birth,
Another moment - and will give birth!
And then she will give way
For passengers with children.
And next to him is a famous football player
With the goddess Nika in her hands.
Under the Iberian hot sky
He took it in a fair fight.
Next to it is a beer vendor.
With oblique blond to toe.
She got everyone drunk
And now she's fine.
And next to him in the mask of Santa Claus
The insidious controller rides.
He put it on on purpose
To not be recognized by everyone.
But with this cunning trick
He won't achieve anything
Since everyone has tickets,
Not excluding anyone.
In this poem, spatial coordinates are given by the head word - bus. In the first two lines of the poem, the parameters of space are set: firstly, very sparingly, the open space of the street is indicated with a hint (A bus is coming down the street) which will not be further specified; secondly, the closed interior space of the bus is updated: A lot of people ride in it. In fact, the entire poem is devoted to a paradoxical description in a laconic, comically lapidary form of the fate of the passengers traveling in the bus (an engineer, a whaler, a worker, a woman giving birth, a football player, a beer seller) and an controller in a Santa Claus mask. In this poem, the static image of characters in a closed space dominates, but this is not at all necessary - a closed space can be a receptacle for dynamically depicted events.
4. fantasy space filled with unreal from a scientific point of view and from the point of view of everyday consciousness beings and events. It can have both horizontal and vertical linear organization; this is a space alien to a person. This type of space is genre-forming, as a result of which fantastic literature is singled out as a separate genre. But this type of space is also found in literary and artistic works, which cannot be unequivocally attributed to fantasy, since the variety of forms of manifestation of the fantastic motivates the diversity of its artistic comprehension. As an example, consider a short poem in the prose of I. S. Turgenev "Skulls" (see workshop).
In this poem, a complex image of space has been created, which at first glance can be qualified as a point, which the first phrase of the text with existential meaning focuses on: Luxurious, lavishly lit room; many gentlemen and ladies. But the fantastic event depicted further by the author, as well as moving into the focus of perception and showing close-up as objects that fill the space and exist, as it were, out of touch with the person, his body organs: cheekbones, skulls, balls of senseless eyes - allow us to consider the space of the text as fantastic . Proof of this is the modality of the poem, clearly expressed by lexical means in the reasoning of the lyrical subject: I looked with horror ... I did not dare to touch my own face, I did not dare to look at myself in the mirror.
5.Space , which is characterized by a vertical orientation, is a space far from a person, filled with bodies free and independent of a person (the Sun, the Moon, stars, etc.). Consider, for example, a poem by N. Gumilyov:
On the distant star Venus
The sun is fiery and golden,
On Venus, ah, on Venus
Trees have blue leaves.
Everywhere free, sonorous waters,
Rivers, geysers, waterfalls
Sing the song of freedom at noon,
At night they burn like lamps.
On Venus, ah, on Venus
There are no offensive or powerful words,
Angels speak on Venus
A language of only vowels.
If they say "Ea" and "ai" -
It's a happy promise
"Wo", "ao" - about the ancient paradise
Golden memory.
On Venus, ah, on Venus
There is no death, tart and stuffy.
If they die on Venus -
They turn into air vapor.
And golden smokes wander
In blue, blue evening bushes
Or, like joyful pilgrims,
Visit the still living.
This poem begins with a phrase with a spatial meaning On the distant star Venus which performs a text-forming function (it is repeated seven times in various variations) and is a sign that allows us to consider the space depicted in the text as cosmic, since stars, planets and other celestial bodies are traditionally considered its attributes.
6. social space subject-doer, subject-transformer. This is his own space for a person, mastered by him, in which his conscious life mainly takes place, events that have a social and social conditionality take place. The modality of the image of such a space can be different: from pretentious, optimistic to reduced, ironic. Let us turn to I. Irtenyev’s poem “The Song of the Young Cooperator”, in which the ironic tone of the depicted social event is clearly felt:
Shot down by a racketeer's bullet
Youth Cooperator
Lies at a paid toilet
With the proud name "toilet".
In the fifth year of perestroika,
In the midst of its flowering,
Killed in front of all honest people
It's from a bandit's gun.
Dreamed of covering the Land of Soviets,
Soul is full of breadth,
It is a network of paid toilets.
But his dreams did not come true.
On the ground blood flows from the ear,
Frozen flour on the face,
And somewhere at home the mother is an ominous woman,
Not to mention the father
Not to mention the children
And not to mention my wife...
He lived little in this world.
But he lived honestly and not in vain.
To replace the fallen hero
The brave fighters will come
And in honor of him they will build everywhere
their underground palaces.
The selected types of literary and artistic spaces do not negate each other and most often interact, interpenetrate, and complement each other in an integral artistic text. Let us give as an example of such a combination of spaces different type poem by N. Gumilyov "Rat":
The light of the lamp shudders,
In the half-dark nursery, it's quiet, eerie,
In a lace and pink crib
A timid little one hid.
What's there? Like a brownie cough?
He lives there, small and bald...
Woe! Because of the wardrobe
The evil rat comes out slowly.
In the reddish glow of the lamp,
Waving a prickly mustache,
See if there's a girl in the crib
Girl with big eyes.
Mom mom! - But mom has guests,
In the kitchen, the laughter of nanny Vasilisa,
And they burn with joy and anger,
Like embers, the eyes of a rat.
It's scary to wait, but getting up is even scarier.
Where is he, where is he, light-winged angel?
Dear angel, come soon
Protect from the rat and have mercy!
In this poem, one can see the combination of three spatial models: a closed point model (its signals are an exact indication of the place of what is happening: a semi-dark nursery, a crib, a wardrobe), a fantastic one (the image of a brownie, small and bald, and the image of a rat), psychological, which is recreated and direct lexical means (It’s quiet, creepy in the dimly lit nursery; Woe!; It’s scary to wait, but it’s even scarier to get up) and indirect, indirect nominations: the image of a girl with huge eyes, her depicted spoken speech (Mom, mom!; Dear angel, come, Protect from the rat and have mercy!) and unspoken inner ( Where is he, where is he, light-winged angel?). The psychological space can be considered dominant in this poem.
In a literary text toponyms perform a text-forming, modeling function. By placing the character in a certain environment, naming and naming the place of his stay, the author, on the one hand, carries out the geographical concretization of the described event, bringing it closer to reality, and also characterizes the character in a certain way, predetermining his character and further development of the plot. It is no coincidence therefore literary heroes various authors, as well as the genre of some works, are determined by the parameters of the space depicted in them, for example: village prose, villagers, urban romance, marine romance, living room drama, kitchen sink dramaturgy, colonial novel, etc. On the other hand, often a toponym in the text is a folded text, a text within a text that has the potential of cultural and historical knowledge, consciously awakened by the author and creating an associative space-time continuum. This is due to the fact that toponyms are directly related to history, inseparable from it, they are carriers of information about the past, signs of certain cultural and historical events.
Often the toponymy of a literary text is consistent with anthroponymy, evoking associations associated with the same cultural and historical events personified in the cultural memory of a people, nation, individual. This kind of spatial allusion<ассоциации, намеки>- a characteristic feature of O. Mandelstam's idiostyle. For example, in his poem "Golden honey stream ..." (see workshop), it is thanks to toponyms and anthroponyms that images of two eras are created - historical and contemporary poet.
At the same time, toponyms can also be aimed at the future, or they can be signs of a fantastic world that has not yet been mastered by man and unfamiliar to him. At the same time, the imaginary worlds depicted in the literary text become an artistic reality, for example: "Utopia Island" (T. Mohr), "City of the Sun" (T. Campanella), "The Martian Chronicles" (R. Bradbury), "The Island of the Eve" (U . Eco), "The Wizard of the Emerald City" (A. Volkov). Moreover, in such literary and artistic works, occasional anthroponyms corresponding to the fantastic space are used: Assol, Tavi Tum (A. Green), Gandalf (J. Tolkien), Gulliver (J. Swift), etc. Thus, anthroponyms, being an inseparable part of the character’s characteristics , contain additional information about the place of his residence, his origin, social status.
As you can see, toponyms perform various textual functions, while their main function outside the text - the name of a point in geographical space - may not be the main one in the conditions of the literary and artistic whole, when the main thing is the awakening in the mind of the reader of the historical, social, cultural connotations of toponyms accumulated by them during their historical existence.
Toponymy and anthroponymy, as well as vocabulary with spatial meaning, characteristic of specific literary and artistic works, further absorb the content of the entire text and acquire a symbolic meaning, becoming signs of certain historical events depicted in the text, for example: “The house on the embankment "(Yu. Trifonov), "Notre Dame Cathedral" (V. Hugo), "Petersburg" (A. Bely), "Quiet Don" (M. Sholokhov), "Potudan River" (A. Platonov), "Mr. San Francisco” (I. Bunin). "Taman" (M-Lermontov), "Prisoner of the Caucasus" (L. Tolstoy). Each of these works symbolizes a certain era associated with the events depicted in them. It is no coincidence that they talk about the Petersburg of F. Dostoevsky, A. Bely, A. Blok; about Moscow M. Bulgakov, M. Tsvetaeva.
So, the artistic image of space in a literary work is subjectively determined, has a conceptual and psychological basis, which determines its uniqueness and originality. The generalization of close, similar in character representation of spatial relations in the context of various literary and artistic works allows us to speak about the general patterns of the embodiment of space in a literary text, about its main typological varieties: psychological, geographical, dotted, fantastic, cosmic, social. At the same time, mono- and polytopic spatial structures are distinguished, static and dynamic in nature of the image, which have a different spatial perspective, due to the author's point of view.
As for a separate artistic text, the image of space created on its pages is always unique and original.
