In 1381, Tokhtamysh gave the label for the great reign to Jogaila. Having placed Jagiello as a counterweight to Moscow, Tokhtamysh decided to invade North-Eastern Rus' in order to thwart Dmitry’s plans to create an all-Russian anti-Horde front. It should be noted here that in the pre-Kulikovo period, enmity between some princely houses was muted, the Kulikovo victory suppressed it with the authority of the winner, but the coming to power of Tokhtamysh, the new ruler of the Horde, revived the faded hopes for changes in the ruling dynasty on the Vladimir table, such were the brothers of the Grand Duchess Evdokia: Vasily and Semyon.
Not feeling the strength to launch an invasion the way Batu and Mamai did, Tokhtamysh attacked Rus' stealthily, counting on surprise. Dmitry entrusted the defense of Moscow to Cyprian and Andrei Olgerdovich's son, Prince Osteya, leaving Princess Evdokia in the Kremlin. Donskoy was confident that Moscow would resist Tokhtamysh, and he himself went to Pereyaslavl to assemble the Pereyaslavl, Suzdal and Beloozersky regiments.
On August 23, advanced Horde detachments approached Moscow and burned the settlements. On August 24, Moscow was besieged by the main forces. For three days the Horde unsuccessfully rushed against the walls and finally resorted to their usual insidious method. Tokhtamysh sent the Nizhny Novgorod princes Vasily and Semyon, sons of Dmitry of Suzdal, to the gates. Ostey went out to negotiate, accompanied by the clergy, he was captured and killed, the clergy were “robbed”, and the Horde burst into the open gates.
Having captured Moscow, Tokhtamysh disbanded the detachments in the volosts. Yuryev, Dmitrov, Mozhaisk were robbed. Near Volokolamsk, the detachments collided with the army that Vladimir Andreevich was gathering; the Horde soldiers were cut down in a short battle. Having learned about this, Tokhtamysh gathered the scattered troops and rushed away as quickly as he had appeared, not wanting to meet with either Vladimir Andreevich, or even more so Dmitry Donskoy, who moved his army from Kostroma to Moscow.
On May 19, 1389, Dmitry Donskoy died in Moscow, and on August 19, Vasily I Dmitrievich ascended the Moscow throne. But the events in the Horde were again closely integrated into the course of the emerging historical process. A new stage in the history of the Golden Horde coincided with the death of Dmitry. Once upon a time, Tokhtamysh broke the obedience of Timur and began to lay claim to the territories under his control. A confrontation began. Tokhtamysh, immediately after the death of Dmitry Donskoy, issued a label for the reign of Vladimir to his son, Vasily I, and strengthened it, transferring to him the Nizhny Novgorod principality and a number of cities. Tokhtamysh, meanwhile, rushed about in the contradictions of Horde politics in Rus', and on the Terek River in 1395, Timur’s troops defeated Tokhtamysh and dealt with him for his duality. After the battle on the Terek, the invincible “god of war” moved his troops through the Volga and Dnieper regions to Moscow, but after standing for 15 days in Yelets, he turned away.
It should be noted that just 15 years after the Battle of Kulikovo, which demonstrated the superiority of Russian politics and Russian military art over the Horde and in many ways decisively weakened the political and economic influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in North-Eastern Rus', the Central Asian commander had to think hard before than to engage in battle with Moscow troops. Timur went into his own borders, dividing the Volga Horde among his proteges. Meanwhile, the internal processes of consolidation of Russian forces after the Kulikovo victory were already out of the control of the Horde.
The new de facto ruler of the Golden Horde is the Nogai Khan Edygei. In his relations with Russia, Edygei followed the policy of Tokhtamysh and achieved its complete dependence on the Horde, inciting the separatist sentiments of the Russian princes, and secretly prepared for a military campaign against Rus'. Edygei first wanted to persuade Vasily Dmitrievich to obey in his letters, recommending maintaining good relations with the Horde. If he acts independently, he cannot reign in the Ulus, which depends on the khan. This sounded like a direct threat to deprive Vasily I of the grand-ducal throne.
When all the maneuvers of the Horde politicians were in vain, Edigei moved towards Moscow. At the same time, the attack also hit Ryazan, Pereyaslavl, Yuryev-Polsky, Rostov and Dmitrov.
Edigei besieged Moscow. Counting on the help of the princes opposed to Vasily, Edigei was mistaken. The times when, at the call of the Horde, Russian princes easily rose up against each other are over. Another unpleasant news for Edigei was that Vasily was able to raise the Horde princes against Khan Bulat-Sultan, Edigei’s protege. Strife began in the Horde and Edigei, having lifted the siege of Moscow, hurried to the Horde.
At this time, Photius was the Metropolitan of All Rus'. In his time Catholic Church increased its pressure on the Poles with the aim of establishing Catholicism in as many Russian lands as possible. The absolute majority of the indigenous population of these lands was Orthodox. The weakening and subsided, but still not completely overthrown, Tatar yoke, coupled with attempts to establish Catholicism, forced the Russian people to unite more and more with each other. Politically, Horde control over the Russian lands was already quite weak, but economically Rus' had not yet fully recovered from the invasions of Tokhtamysh and Edigei and the ongoing small Tatar detachments. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, weakened under the influence of the Kulikovo defeat, still exerted its influence on the Moscow principality. And although in the minds of the Russian people the Tatar was no longer a terrible warrior whom everyone feared, the folk epic passed down from generation to generation still kept the Russians in some kind of fear and respect for the Mongol-Tatars.
The life of the son of Dmitry Donskoy, full of difficult trials and anxieties, was coming to an end. Vasily passed away at a troubling time for Moscow and all-Russian affairs. On February 27, 1425, after 36 years of reign, Vasily I Dmitrievich died, leaving behind his 9-year-old son Vasily II Vasilyevich to reign.
And although the reign of Vasily II promised to be very difficult, in the initial period none of the appanage Russian princes rose up against him. Such was the authority of the Moscow princely house, won by the ancestors of Vasily II.
In the spring of 1432, a trial took place in the Horde between Yuri Dmitrievich, the uncle of the Grand Duke, and the prince himself. Yuri justified his claims to reign by the ancient patrimonial right of inheritance, established by Yaroslav the Wise. It spoke for the young prince that his father received a label to reign. The court awarded the principality to his nephew. But in April 1433, Yuri still managed to sit on the grand-ducal throne for some time, with short breaks. In 1434, Vasily II exiled Yuri to Beloozero, after which he suddenly died. But after Yuri’s death, the banner of hostility was raised by his sons: Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka.
What followed was almost a decade of hostility between them, accompanied by victories and defeats on one side or the other. At this time, on February 16, 1446, Vasily II was blinded on the orders of Dmitry Shemyaka; earlier, on June 14, 1445, Moscow burned down, having Khan Ugul-Muhammad under its walls. Only in 1453 was Shemyaka poisoned in Novgorod; for the sake of fairness, it is worth noting that he was not loved everywhere, in Moscow, Novgorod, and other cities. This ended the war between the grandchildren of Dmitry Donskoy, and the grand ducal power had a free hand to strengthen it and destroy the last centers of separatist tendencies among the largest feudal princes.
Rus' suffered many devastations in the first half of the great reign of Vasily the Dark. Having called upon the service of the Horde prince Kasim and granted him Gorodets Meshchersky, the Grand Duke had at his disposal an ally who was able to provide him with political and military assistance in the defense of Muscovite Rus' from Horde raids, and at the same time to some extent participate in the centralization of Vladimir principalities.
The last decade of the reign of Vasily the Dark showed us a sovereign who established state power over all of North-Eastern Russia. Mozhaisk, Serpukhov, partly Novgorod, Pskov and Ryazan. Vasily II settled his affairs with the Horde. The collapse weakened the Horde, the strengthening of Moscow and its troops kept the khans from raiding.
In 1449, a peace treaty was signed between Vasily the Dark and the new Polish king Casimir. Vasily completed the unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow. In 1462, Grand Duke Vasily II died.
Ivan Vasilyevich was twenty-three years old when he became Grand Duke. By the end of his life, Ivan III concentrated in his hands immense power that no European sovereign had possessed.
The era of Ivan III is the era of the most complex work of Russian diplomacy, the era of strengthening the Russian army, necessary for the defense of the Russian state. The first conquest of Ivan III was the Kazan Khanate; in 1467, unrest in Kazan gave the Moscow prince a reason to intervene. Tsarevich Kasim's first campaign against Kazan failed. In the spring of 1469 and the summer of the same year there were 2 more campaigns. In 1478, the lands of Veliky Novgorod became part of a single state.
In 1492, Ivan III began to officially be styled “Sovereign of All Rus'.” But back in 1480, Ivan III began to prepare the political ground for the accomplishment of the Horde yoke. As soon as Moscow received accurate news from the Wild Field that Khan Akhmat with all his strength was going to the Don, the Grand Duke set up regiments on the Oka. Khan Akhmat, having learned that strong regiments were deployed on the Oka River, went to Kaluga to unite with Casimir. Having determined the direction of the Horde's march, Ivan III intercepted it on the Ugra River.
Akhmat threatened to launch an offensive when the ice bound the Ugra. On October 26, Ugra rose. Akhmat was also standing. On November 11, Khan Akhmat, despite the fact that all crossings across the Ugra were open, turned away. He took off running through the Lithuanian volosts of his ally Casimir.
November 11, 1480, the day of Khan Akhmat’s departure from the banks of the Ugra, is considered to be the day of the complete liberation of the Russian land and the Russian people from the Horde yoke, from any dependence on the khans of the Golden Horde.
The end has come to the 250-year-old Mongol-Tatar yoke on Russian soil. These years had a huge impact on the development of Russian lands. Entire generations of the Russian people grew up under the yoke of the Tatars and also died without experiencing a free life. Getting rid of the Tatar yoke was the goal of the entire Russian people, people lived and died with this thought.
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Crimean Medical Academy named after S.I. Georgievsky
Crimean Federal University named after V.I. Vernadsky
on the topic: Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
Completed:
Abibullaev I.M.
Simferopol 2015
Introduction
2. Liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke
Conclusion
Introduction
Russian princes and the Horde yoke.
In the first years after the invasion, the Russian princes were more occupied with the restoration of their destroyed principalities and the distribution of princely tables than with the problem of establishing any relations with the conquerors who had left the Russian lands.
Apparently, there was no complete unanimity in North-Eastern Rus' on this issue. Strong and rich cities in the northwestern and western outskirts that were not subject to Tatar defeat (Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Minsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk) opposed the recognition of dependence on the Horde khans. Northwestern Rus', which also opposed subordination to the Horde khan, was opposed by a group of Rostov princes. Their principalities suffered relatively little from Batu's invasion: Rostov and Uglich surrendered without a fight and were probably not destroyed by the Tatars, and the conquerors did not reach Beloozero at all. Some cities of the Rostov land even during the invasion established some relations with the conquerors.
The existence of these two groups - northwestern and Rostov - largely determined the policy of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. This policy in the first decade after Batu's invasion was twofold. On the one hand, most of North-Eastern Rus' was devastated by the invasion and no longer had the strength to openly resist the conquerors, which made recognition, at least formal, of dependence on the Golden Horde khans inevitable. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that the voluntary recognition of the power of the Horde khan provided the Grand Duke personally with advantages in the struggle for the subordination of other Russian princes to his influence. On the other hand, the existence of strong opposition to the conquerors in North-Western Rus' and repeated promises by Western diplomacy of military assistance against the Mongol-Tatars could awaken hope, under certain conditions, to resist the claims of the Horde. In addition, the Grand Duke could not help but take into account the anti-Tatar sentiments of the masses, who repeatedly opposed the foreign yoke.
The policy of agreement with the conquerors was supported by the Orthodox Church.
In addition to reasons common to the entire class of feudal lords, the position of the clergy was influenced big influence the usual policy for the Mongols to attract the local clergy to their side through complete religious tolerance, privileges, exemption from tribute, etc. No less important for explaining the position Orthodox Church It seems that the churchmen were very suspicious of the opposition's negotiations with the Vatican, seeing an alliance with the Catholic states as a real threat to their income and privileged position.
The defeat of the anti-Tatar group led to the fact that for a long period (until the rise of Moscow) none of the northeastern Russian principalities could become an organizational center for the fight against the conquerors. This was the main reason for the separation of Russian lands on the western outskirts from Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', conquered by the Mongol-Tatars.
1. Horde politics in Russia
At this time, another center of the Russian land strengthened and rose to prominence - Chernigov, where in 1245 Prince Mikhail of Chernigov returned after a six-year stay in Poland and Hungary. In order to prevent Rus' from becoming too strong, the Horde khans decided to create a perfect system of Horde control over political life all of Rus'. The first point of this plan was the almost simultaneous execution of both great princes. Mikhail was summoned to the Volga Horde, and Yaroslav to Karakorum, and although the princes were separated from each other, in the 40-50s of the 13th century the rulers of the largest uluses of Genghis Khan’s empire acted together in the international arena, in particular, they exercised and strengthened Horde control over the Russian lands in different ways and ways.
The most widespread was the pitting of leading princes against each other. The Horde creates two great principalities in Rus' so that, by pitting these two principalities and princes against each other, they control Southern and North-Eastern Rus'. Since the occupation of North-Eastern Rus' was actually beyond the Horde’s power, despite its magnificent military machine, the Horde needed these lands as a constant and reliable source of income in the form of tribute. ancient Russian khan conqueror of the yoke
And, seeing that other neighboring countries of Rus', primarily the Swedes, were laying claim to this, they placed the strong and politically flexible Alexander Yaroslavich on the Russian throne, however, in opposition to whom the Catholics put up Daniil Galitsky, again playing on the internal strife of the Russian princes. Daniel took the position of an enemy of the Horde, but, not having enough strength, was forced to lay down his arms.
Alexander, realizing that militarily Rus' was powerless before the Horde, bowed to the khans, giving North-Eastern Rus' the necessary time to restore the destruction inflicted by Batu.
Daniel, in fact the master of Southern Rus', as already mentioned, decided to enter into the fight against the Horde. In 1257, he expelled the Horde from the Galician and Volyn cities, thereby bringing upon himself in 1259 the Burundu army, which Daniil did not have the strength to resist. In North-Eastern Rus', the struggle also developed on two fronts: an invasion from the West began. Germans, Swedes and those who entered the process; centralization, the Lithuanian principalities saw an opportunity to expand their possessions at the expense of Russian lands.
Mindovg gathered the Lithuanian lands under his hand. Lithuania's successes in annexing Russian lands led to its war with the Order. In 1259, he suffered a crushing defeat from Mindaugas; in 1260, Mindaugas himself invaded the Order’s possessions: the Lithuanian principality asserted itself with significant force, annexing the Polish lands, weakened by Batu’s invasion. Alexander Nevsky saw one path for Rus': the power of the great prince of Vladimir should become autocratic in North-Eastern Rus', although, perhaps, dependent on the Horde for quite a long time.
For peace with the Horde, for peace on Russian soil, one had to pay. Alexander had to assist Horde officials in the census of Russian lands for the regular collection of tribute.
The influence of the Horde extended to both the political and economic aspects of life in North-Eastern Rus'. But Alexander developed very vigorous activity, concluding an agreement with Mindaugas against the Order in 1262, which frightened Horde diplomacy. Not without her participation, in 1263 Mindovg was killed in a princely feud, and Alexander was summoned to the Horde and died on the way back under mysterious circumstances. The Horde benefited from the death of Alexander and the policy of pitting contenders for the grand ducal throne against each other after his death.
2. Liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke
After the annexation of the Novgorod land, the Moscow principality turned into a large and strong state. By this time, the Golden Horde had collapsed. The Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean and Siberian khanates separated from it, living in constant hostility among themselves. Having concluded an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, Ivan III began to prepare for a break with the Horde. In 1478, Ivan III, in the presence of Moscow boyars and Horde ambassadors, tore up and trampled upon the agreement with the Horde, declaring that he would no longer obey the khan and pay tribute. The Khan's ambassadors were expelled from Moscow.
The Golden Horde Khan Akhmat decided to fight with the rebellious Moscow. In the summer of 1480, he and a large army approached the Ugra River, which flowed into the Oka near Kaluga. The Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, dissatisfied with the fact that it was not possible to capture Novgorod, promised to help Akhmat and also began to prepare for a campaign against Moscow.
Ivan III placed his regiments on the opposite bank of the Ugra, blocking the Tatars' path to Moscow. Many times Tatar horsemen tried to cross the river, but the Russians met them with a rain of arrows and cannon fire. The battle on the Ugra lasted four days. Having lost a fair number of his soldiers, Akhmat abandoned the crossing.
Weeks and months passed, and Akhmat still waited for help from the Poles. But Casimir IV had no time for him. The southern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian state were attacked by the Crimean Khan Giray, an ally of Ivan III. Akhmat received news that Russian detachments sent on ships along the Volga by Ivan III attacked the territory of the Golden Horde. November has arrived. Frost has begun. The Tatars, dressed in summer clothes, began to suffer greatly from the cold. Akhmat went with his army to the Volga. He was soon killed by his rivals.
Thus, the unification of Russian lands into a single centralized state led to the liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Russian state became independent. Its international connections have expanded significantly. Ambassadors from many countries came to Moscow Western Europe. Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Rus', and the Russian state - Russia. Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor - Sophia Paleologus. His marriage was used to strengthen the authority of Moscow. Moscow was declared the successor of Byzantium, the center of Orthodoxy. The Byzantine coat of arms - a double-headed eagle - was made the coat of arms of Russia. A period of independent development began in the history of the Russian people. “Our great Russian land,” the chronicler wrote, “has freed itself from the yoke and begun renewal, as if it had passed from winter to quiet spring.”
3. The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on ancient Russian civilization
What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion for the Old Russian state? The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the lives of city residents became poorer, and many crafts fell into disrepair. The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production. Since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass removals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the craft population of the Russian city, they lost centuries of production experience: the craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. Complex crafts have been disappearing for a long time; their revival began only 15 years later. The ancient skill of enamel has disappeared forever. Became poorer appearance Russian cities. The quality of construction subsequently also dropped significantly. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside and rural monasteries of Rus', where the majority of the country's population lived. The peasants were robbed by all the Horde officials, and numerous khan's ambassadors, and simply gangs of robbers.
The damage caused by the Monolo-Tatars to the peasant economy was terrible. Dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed in the war. Draft cattle were captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked out the entire harvest from barns. Russian peasant prisoners were an important export item from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, "famines" and "pestilences", the constant threat of slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian village. The damage caused to the national economy of Rus' by the Mongolo-Tatar conquerors was not limited to devastating looting during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values left the country in the form of “tribute” and “requests”. The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. There was not enough silver for trade; there was even a “silver famine.”
The Mongol-Tatar conquests led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. For example, Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Rus' for predatory raids. The German feudal lords also intensified the attack on the Russian lands. Russia lost the way to the Baltic Sea. The ancient ties between the Russian principalities and Byzantium were also broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. Numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed in the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions.
The conquests led to a long decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its peak at the beginning of Batu's invasion.
The Mongol-Tatar conquests artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, and the natural economy was “mothballed.”
While the Western European states, which were not attacked, gradually moved from feudalism to capitalism, Rus', torn apart by the conquerors, retained the feudal economy. The invasion was the reason for the temporary backwardness of our country.
The invasion also interrupted the progressive phenomenon taking place in pre-Mongol Rus', aimed at eliminating feudal fragmentation and unifying the country, while simultaneously intensifying princely strife. Thus, the Mongol-Tatar invasion cannot in any way be called a progressive phenomenon in the history of our country.
Conclusion
It is difficult to even imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how many more misfortunes, murders and destruction they could have caused, if not for the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, stopped the invasion on the borders of Central Europe .
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the yoke of the Golden Horde that followed the invasion played a huge role in the history of our country. After all, the rule of the nomads lasted for almost two and a half centuries, and during this time the yoke managed to put a significant imprint on the fate of the Russian people. This period in the history of our country is very important, since it predetermined the further development of Ancient Rus'.
Who knows what country we would live in now if this 250-year nightmare had not been in our history. But in this case, Russian folk wisdom says: “There would be no happiness, but misfortune would help” and “everything that is done is all for the better.” After all, from the fire of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Rus' emerged united, united by difficult trials and victories, a great state, which from then until now all states and peoples of the world must reckon with.
Bibliography
1. Brekov I.B., World of history: Russian lands in the 13-15th centuries. M.: “Young
Guard" 1988;
2. Karamzin M.M., History of the Russian State, M.: 1991;
3. Kargilov V.V., Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus', M.: 1966;
4. Klyuchevsky V.O., Course of Russian History, M.: Volume 2, 1959;
5. Kulepov G.V., Our Fatherland, M.: “Terra” 1991;
6. Preslyakov A.E., Russian autocrats, M.: “Book” 1990;
7. Solovyov S.M., Readings and stories on the History of Russia, M.: "Book" 1990.
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Formation of the Mongol Empire. The Mongols (also called Tatars after the name of the main tribe), who occupied in the 12th century. vast territory of Central Asia, experienced a period of decomposition of the clan system and the emergence of early feudal relations. The Mongolian state was headed by the nobility, who had vast pastures and herds of livestock. The numerous wars waged by the Mongols were dictated by the predatory interests of feudal lords who were looking for new sources of enrichment. The Mongolian aristocracy relied on military squads. In an effort to strengthen power, the Mongolian feudal lords in 1206 at a kurultai (congress) proclaimed one of the most prominent rulers of the steppe aristocracy, Temujin, as the all-Mongolian ruler, the Great Khan, under the name of Genghis Khan.
Having created a well-armed, mobile army, subject to severe discipline, he began to conquer neighboring countries and peoples. As a result of wars of conquest in the first half of the 13th century. The Mongol feudal empire (power) emerged. It included Siberia, Northwestern China, middle Asia, Transcaucasia. The Mongols reached the steppes of the North Caucasus through mountain gorges and, having defeated the Polovtsians and Alans, began moving towards the Russian borders.
The struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The first meeting of the combined forces of the Russian princes (Kyiv, Galician, Chernigov, Smolensk) and the Polovtsians with the Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River. A bloody battle took place. The uncoordinated actions of the Russian and Polovtsian troops led to a brutal defeat. The Mongol troops, having reached the Dnieper, turned back to Asia. After the Battle of Kalka, the Mongol feudal lords strengthened their decision to move west. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu (Batu), was placed at the head of numerous troops, who in 1236 conquered the territories of the Kama Bulgarians and in the winter of 1237 entered the Ryazan principality. After a five-day battle, in which Russian soldiers and generals died, Ryazan was taken and all the inhabitants were killed. In a short period of time, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Tver, Kostroma and other cities were captured and devastated. Before reaching 100 kilometers to Novgorod, Batu turned his army back. The invaders passed through the eastern lands of the Smolensk and Chernigov principalities. Everywhere the enemies met courageous resistance. This forced the Mongol troops to withdraw beyond the Volga. But in the fall of 1239, Batu Khan again moved to Rus', now to the South and South-West. After fierce resistance, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Chernigov, Kyiv, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky and other Russian cities were taken. Only the Polotsk-Minsk and Novgorod lands survived the invasion. Rus' was devastated and plundered. The Mongol conquest led to a long-term economic, political and cultural decline of the Russian lands.
Upon returning from a campaign in Europe in 1243, Batu Khan and the nobility around him settled in the Lower Volga, where a new state arose - the Golden Horde, with its capital in Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan), in the first half of the 14th century. the capital was transferred to Saray-Berke (founded by Khan Berke). The territory under the rule of the Golden Horde stretched from the Irtysh to the Danube, including the lands of the peoples of the Volga and Urals regions, in the south - the Crimea and the North Caucasus. The Golden Horde was an artificial and fragile state association with a diverse population: Volga Bulgarians, Mordovians, Russians, Greeks, etc. The bulk of the nomads were Turkic tribes of the Polovtsians, Tatars, Kyrgyz, etc. The indigenous Russian lands were not part of the Golden Horde, but were in vassal dependence on her they paid tribute (yasak).
The Khan's tribute fell heavily on the Russian people, who could not reconcile and did not stop fighting against the conquerors. Every now and then, uprisings broke out against the Mongols in Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir, etc. In 1327, a major uprising took place in Tver.
The beginning of the unification of Russian lands. From the second half of the 14th century. Moscow became the center of resistance to the Horde. The power of the khans in Rus' was weakening. The strengthening of Moscow caused alarm in the Horde, which was under the rule of the temnik Mamai and by the end of the 70s. XIV century intensified raids on Russian cities. Trying to break the power of the Russian people and again subjugate the Russian lands, Mamai began to prepare a big campaign against Moscow. The entire Russian people rose to defend the Motherland. The leadership was carried out by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich (future Donskoy). He skillfully organized reconnaissance and constantly kept the initiative in his hands. Carefully monitoring the advance of Mamai's troops, he chose a location convenient for Russian troops on the Kulikovo field, where the famous Battle of Kulikovo took place on September 8, 1380. The battle ended with a remarkable victory of the Russian army over the forces of the Mamayev Horde, which suffered complete defeat. The Battle of Kulikovo was of great international significance. It marked the beginning of the end of the Golden Horde and the liberation of a number of peoples from the yoke of conquerors. This was the first nationwide success. The victory on the Kulikovo Field showed that the united forces of the Russian principalities could rid the country of foreign rule. But only a century later the Mongol-Tatar yoke was finally overthrown.
Fall of the Golden Horde. In the 15th century The Golden Horde, as a result of internecine struggle, broke up into separate khanates. In 1476, Russian Tsar Ivan III stopped paying Horde tribute. Khan Ahmad in 1480 made several attempts to achieve obedience from Ivan III. But he showed great firmness and determination, as a result of which the Russian state finally stopped paying tribute to the Horde.
Mongol-Tatar rule was finally overthrown. In the process of the struggle against the conquerors, the unity of the people grew, and the revival of Russian statehood took place. The victory over the conquerors, prepared by the heroic people's liberation struggle, had enormous historical significance. It ensured the further independent development of Russia.
Overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke .
One of the main conquests of Rus' during the reign of Ivan III was the complete liberation from the Horde yoke. In 1480, Khan Akhmat decided to force Rus' to pay tribute, the receipt of which probably stopped in the mid-70s. To do this, he gathered a huge army and, having concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir, moved to the southwestern borders of Rus'.
Ivan III, after some hesitation, took decisive action and closed the road to the Tatars, standing on the bank of the river. The Ugrians are a tributary of the Oka. The Khan's attempts to cross the Ugra were decisively repulsed by Russian troops. Therefore, the famous “stand” on the Ugra River can hardly be called peaceful and bloodless, as some historians believe. Without waiting for help from Casimir, whose actions were neutralized by the raid on Lithuania by the troops of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, an ally of Ivan III, and internal strife, as well as fearing the early cold weather, Akhmat eventually retreated.
Thus ended the 240-year Horde yoke. The Horde broke up into a number of independent khanates, which the Russian state fought against throughout the 16th–18th centuries, gradually incorporating them into its composition.
15. Estate-class structure of Russian society. Law code 1497
Domestic policy in the second half of the 15th century. Law code 1497
Political system of the Russian state at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. developed towards centralization. The Grand Duke of All Rus' already systematically used the title of sovereign, and the features of an autocrat appeared in his power.
As centralization progressed, the organization of government administration also changed. The number of appanage principalities decreased, and former appanage princes joined the ranks of the Moscow boyars. The most notable boyars were members of the Boyar Duma, the highest advisory body; All the most important state issues and issues of palace management were resolved in the Boyar Duma. Gradually, a whole system of palace institutions grew up, in charge of the grand ducal economy and palace lands (Novgorod, Tverskoy and other “palaces”). Along with the system of palaces at the end of the 15th century. Central government institutions began to emerge, which were in charge of individual branches of government in all lands of the state. They were called huts, and later - orders. The huts were usually headed by boyars, but the main work was done by clerks, and from among the serving nobles, office managers and their assistants.
Administratively, the main territory of the state was divided into counties, and the latter into volosts and camps. General local administration was concentrated among governors and volosts. They were judges, collectors of the princes' income. The governors were also the military commanders of cities and districts; according to the old custom, they were supported (“fed”) at the expense of the population. Initially, “feeding” - extortions - was not limited to anything; later, “feeding” standards were established.
The establishment of the local system dates back to the reign of Ivan III. After the annexation of Novgorod, the Grand Duke confiscated the lands of the Novgorod boyars, divided them into estates of 100–300 dessiatines and distributed them to his horsemen (“landowners”). The landowners had no power over the peasants of their estates; they only collected taxes from them, the amounts of which were recorded in census forms. Ownership of the estate was conditional on service; landowners were regularly called to inspections, and if a warrior displeased the commanders, the estate could be taken away; if the landowner proved himself in battle, then the “manor’s dacha” was increased. Estates could be inherited, but the son entering the service in place of his father was not given the entire father’s allotment, but only what was due to a young warrior, a “novice.”
Important changes occurred in the structure of feudal land ownership. The nature of land ownership of princes changed. Having become subjects of the sovereign of all Rus', they largely retained ownership of their former domain lands. However, these possessions of theirs became increasingly closer to ordinary fiefdoms. In addition, in return for part of the old lands taken from them, they received estates on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Moscow and Vladimir, and also acquired estates there themselves by purchase or as a dowry. Thus, princely landownership gradually came closer to ordinary boyar ownership, although this process ended only by the middle of the 16th century. the crushing and dispossession of part of the patrimonial lands was contrary to state interests. It was possible to ensure the combat effectiveness of the army in only one way: each warrior had to have land property, because the state did not have the means for a cash salary, and each warrior had to purchase weapons and war horses at his own expense. The creation of a single state created opportunities for an active foreign policy, and it even required an increase in the armed forces. Land distributions were necessary. These distributions became possible because a vast land fund fell into the hands of the Grand Duke: the possessions of the Novgorod patrimonial lands and the domain lands of the Tver principality. New acquisitions were also expected. But allocating land on the old patrimonial right was dangerous: new patrimonies could after some time fall into the hands of the monks. Therefore, both the Novgorod patrimonial owners, evicted to the central and eastern regions of the country, and the Moscow service people who received their possessions, were prohibited from selling and donating their new lands. Such feudal lords, resettled to new places and “settled” there, began to be called landowners, and their possessions - estates.
The long-standing rule that a peasant could leave his owner only for two weeks a year became a national norm. The Code of Law of 1497 established instead of those that existed in different areas different terms a single transition period for peasants throughout the country: a week before Saint George’s Day in the fall (November 26) and a week after. This was the first nationwide restriction of peasant freedom, but not yet the enslavement of the peasants. The timing - the end of November, the time when the harvest had already been harvested and the sled track was established - was relatively convenient for both landowners and peasants. In a unified state, on the other hand, the prohibitions on the transfer of peasants from one principality to another lost their force. The peasants of small principalities, whose territory approached the size of a large fiefdom, actually acquired the right to move at least on St. George’s Day.
Rent in kind prevailed, as before, although in some places monetary rent also arose. The corvee industry was still poorly developed, and the feudal lord's own plowing was worked mainly by slaves. Centralization of power. Fragmentation gradually gave way to centralization. After the annexation of Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title “By the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.”
The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign (“boyarization of princes”). These principalities were now called districts and were governed by governors from Moscow. The governors were also called “feeder boyars,” since for managing the districts they received food from a portion of the tax, the amount of which was determined by the previous payment for service in the troops. Localism is the right to occupy a particular position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their services to the Moscow Grand Duke.
A centralized control apparatus began to take shape.
Boyar Duma. It consisted of 5–12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichy (boyars and okolnichy are the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars, from the middle of the 15th century. Local princes from the annexed lands also sat in the Duma, recognizing the seniority of Moscow. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on the “affairs of the land.”
The future order system grew out of two national departments: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, the Treasury was in charge of finances, the state seal, and the archive.
During the reign of Ivan III, a magnificent and solemn ceremony began to be established at the Moscow court. Contemporaries associated its appearance with the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Zoya (Sophya) Paleologus, the daughter of the brother of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine Palaiologos, in 1472.
Code of Law of Ivan III. In 1497, a new set of laws of a single state was adopted, the Code of Laws of Ivan Sh. The Code of Laws included 68 articles and reflected the strengthening of the role of the central government in the state structure and legal proceedings of the country. Article 57 limited the right of peasant transition from one feudal lord to another to a certain period of the day for the entire country: a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26). For leaving, the peasant had to pay “elderly” - payment for the years lived in the old place. The limitation of peasant migration was the first step towards the establishment of serfdom in the country. However, until the end of the 16th century. peasants retained the right to move from one landowner to another.
6.1. Concentration of power. The power of the Grand Duke steadily strengthened.
6.1.1. This was manifested in the spread of service-subject relations between the prince and all layers of society, including the highest. They were based not on contractual relations, characteristic of the countries of Western Europe and fixing both duties and rights and even privileges of certain social groups, but on strict subordination and obedience to the will of the Grand Duke. The boyars' departures from the prince ceased. The form of address of boyars and princes to the sovereign is approved: “I am your slave” - unthinkable for the relationship between overlord and vassal. Ambassador of the German Empire Sigismund Herberstein in the beginning. XV1st century noted: “In Rus' they all call themselves serfs, that is, slaves of the sovereign... These people find more pleasure in slavery than in freedom.”
6.2. Creation of an all-Russian system of government And yet, the despotism of the personal power of the Grand Duke acted rather as a trend.
6.2.1. The prince's autocracy was limited by traditional governing bodies and legal norms. The Boyar Duma was preserved, its roots going back to the era when the prince “thought” with his senior warriors about the affairs of the “land.” It performed advisory functions and acted according to the formula: “The sovereign indicated and the boyars sentenced.” The declared principle, designed to reflect the unity of will of the Grand Duke and the boyars, did not exclude disagreements when the boyars expressed their opinions. The Duma included representatives of old Moscow families, from the middle of the 15th century. it began to be replenished by the great princes of the annexed lands, and later by princes moving from Lithuania to serve the Moscow prince.
6.2.2. New governing bodies also emerged. A huge role in governing the country was played by the Treasury - the main sovereign repository, and in addition, the state chancellery, which also dealt with foreign policy issues. A staff of clerks - government officials - began to form in the Treasury.
6.2.3. In administrative-territorial terms, the country was divided into counties (usually within the boundaries of former principalities), and those into volosts. The districts were governed by boyar governors, who received them as a reward for previous military service. They fed from the territory under their control and were even called “feeders”, because they received part of the taxes and court fees not for performing official duties, but for previous merits. That is why they often delegated their functions to tiuns - slaves. In addition, their activities were practically not controlled from the center, where there was no extensive management apparatus, which ultimately limited the capabilities of the central government.
6.2.4. The main military force of a single state became an army made up of service people. For fulfilling their military duties, they received land ownership, that is, they were “settled” on the land (hence the term landowner).
6.2.5. In 1497, the Code of Laws was adopted - the first set of laws of a unified state. Acting throughout the entire territory of the Moscow State, it delimited the competence of the grand ducal and boyar courts, and determined the norms of punishment for certain crimes. In addition, he introduced a rule common to all lands regulating the secession of peasants from their feudal lord. On St. George's Day (St. George's Day) in the fall (or rather, a week before November 26 and a week after), a peasant could move to other lands by paying his former owner the so-called. "elderly" - payment for the years lived.
6.3. Tendency of despotism. The grand ducal government, in opposition to traditional norms and institutions of governance, sought to establish an autocratic form of government. In Russian science there is no consensus on the type and nature of state power in Russia, which was established at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. Some historians believe that at this time a class-representative monarchy emerged, expressing the interests of the feudal elite of society, that is, princes and boyars. Others define it as an eastern type of despotism, non-class in its essence.
What predetermined the development and, ultimately, the establishment of the autocratic tendency?
Sudebnik 1497 - a set of laws of the Russian state; a regulatory legal act created to systematize existing rules of law.
A monument of Russian feudal law of the 15th century, created during the reign of Ivan III. For a long time, the compilation of the Code of Law was attributed to clerk Vladimir Gusev, however, according to L.V. Cherepnin, supported by other historians, there was a typo in the original document and it was about the execution of the aforementioned Gusev. According to the same Cherepnin, the most likely compilers of the Code of Law were Prince I. Yu. Patrikeev, as well as clerks: Vasily Dolmatov, Vasily Zhuk, Fyodor Kuritsyn.
Reasons for adopting the Law Code.
Prince Ivan III Vasilievich. The era of Ivan III was marked by the overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the creation of a Moscow centralized state.
The strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke, the growing influence of the nobility, and the emergence of a centralized state management apparatus necessitated the adoption of a new legal act that meets the above realities.
Sources of the Code of Laws.
The Code of Law of 1497 was based on previous legislation. The sources of this legal act were:
Russian truth. And its editions.
Pskov judicial charter.
Statutory charters are normative documents issued by the supreme authority on issues of local government.
Letters of judgment are decisions on the judicial system, granted to individual localities and containing, in addition, some norms of civil and criminal law.
Court decisions on certain issues.
Features of the Sudebnik.
In the Code of Laws of 1497, like any feudal “code,” the rules of law were set out without a clear system, casually (that is, for each case, going into particulars), openly defining the privileges of the ruling stratum of the population.
However, a certain systematization of the material has already emerged, which was not known to previous laws.
There are significantly more norms of procedural law (conducting investigative and judicial proceedings) in the Code of Laws than norms of substantive law (civil, criminal).
Art. 67 of the Code of Law established the procedure for announcing princely decrees.
Legal technology, that is, the total connection of techniques used in developing the content and structure of legal regulations of the state, is weak.
Activities of the central court and norms of criminal law (Articles 1–36).
Organization and activities of local courts (Articles 37–45).
Civil law and civil procedure (Articles 46–66) (inheritance, contracts of personal employment, purchase and sale, transfer of peasants from one owner to another, servitude).
Additional articles on judicial proceedings (Articles 67–68)
Trial according to Code of Laws of 1497
There were a majority of procedural norms in the Code of Laws. The legislator reasonably believed that property, liabilities and family relationships have already been regulated by the power of custom and tradition, so there is no need to include “well-known truths” in the Code of Laws. Thus, the Code of Law became, first of all, instructions for conducting court hearings.
The process as a whole was adversarial in nature, that is, it was built on the principles of procedural equality of the parties and the division of functions between the prosecutor, defense and court. In this case, the prosecutor bore the “burden of proof” of the guilt of the accused, and the court acted as an arbiter between the parties.
However, the features of a search or inquisition process have already emerged. The latter is characterized by the lack of rights of the accused and the possibility of competing with the accuser, especially since this process is characterized by the merging in one person of the functions of judge, prosecutor and defense attorney. Code of Law 1497 legitimized torture as a means of achieving the truth.
The process included three stages:
Identification of the parties (plaintiff and defendant).
Negotiation.
Making a court decision and issuing a “letter of right” with a record of the decision.
A written record was required.
The composition of the court, in addition to the Grand Duke's governor, included “ the best people" - representatives of the local aristocracy.
Criminal law.
The crime was not understood as “offense”, as in Russian Pravda, but as a “dashing deed”. If “offense” meant damage to a person or the state, then a “daring deed” was an act directed against the existing system, against the rule of law. In other words, a “daring deed” is nothing more than a violation of the will of the sovereign. And to accuse someone of tatba, or robbery, or murder, or snitching, or some other wicked thing...
Composition of crimes.
Against the state - sedition (that is, conspiracy, rebellion or other actions directed against the existing regime). They also include crimes against the order of government. For example, refusal of justice: And what kind of complainant comes to the boyar, and he does not send away complainants from himself. The article on “wrongful trials” protected citizens from the arbitrariness of officials. There was also such a thing as “sneaking,” that is, a deliberately false denunciation.
Against a person – murder, “head robbery” (kidnapping), insult by deed or word.
Property crimes - theft (theft), robbery, robbery, arson.
Punishment and its purpose.
Punishment system:
The death penalty.
Corporal punishment: “trade execution” - whipping on the trading floor; self-harmful punishments (cutting of the tongue, ears, branding) had just begun to be introduced and were not widespread.
Monetary penalties (fines): in cases of insult and “dishonor.” (This type of punishment was not prescribed in the Code of Laws of 1497, but was often used in practice).
Civil law.
The Code of Law does not contain detailed regulation of property rights. The principle of private property is affirmed. However, land and other property being sold are mentioned without specifically stipulating legal consequences. In the Code of Laws of 1497, the term “estate” was first used to designate a special type of conditional land ownership, issued for the performance of public service.
The Code of Law of 1497 was the first law regulating the beginning of the enslavement of peasants. From now on, the peasant could leave his master only within a strictly defined period. St. George's Day (November 26) is the date with which in Rus' the exercise of the right of peasants to transfer from feudal lord to feudal lord was associated, since by this time the annual cycle of agricultural work was completed and settlement of monetary and in-kind obligations of peasants in favor of their owners took place.
On a national scale, peasant output was limited in the Code of Laws of 1497 to a two-week period - one week before and after St. George’s Day. The Code of Law of 1550 confirmed this position. The right of peasants to migrate was temporarily abolished with the introduction of “reserved years”, and then completely prohibited by legislation in the 1590s. The Council Code of 1649 confirmed this ban.
The Code of Law limited servitude in the city. Thus, the number of “taxpayers” (taxpayers) among the urban population increased.
The Code of Law regulated the following types of contracts: hiring, loans, as well as rules of inheritance.
Already at the age of 12 the future Grand Duke married, at the age of 16 he began to replace his father when he was absent, and at 22 he became the Grand Duke of Moscow.
Ivan III had a secretive and at the same time strong character (later these character traits manifested themselves in his grandson).
Under Prince Ivan, the issue of coins began with the image of him and his son Ivan the Young and the signature “Gospodar” All Rus'" As a stern and demanding prince, Ivan III received the nickname Ivan groznyj, but a little later this phrase began to be understood as a different ruler Rus' .
Ivan continued the policy of his ancestors - collecting Russian lands and centralizing power. In the 1460s, Moscow's relations with Veliky Novgorod became strained, whose residents and princes continued to look west, towards Poland and Lithuania. After the world failed to establish relations with the Novgorodians twice, the conflict reached a new level. Novgorod enlisted the support of the Polish king and Prince Casimir of Lithuania, and Ivan stopped sending embassies. On July 14, 1471, Ivan III, at the head of an army of 15-20 thousand, defeated the almost 40 thousand army of Novgorod; Casimir did not come to the rescue.
Novgorod lost most of its autonomy and submitted to Moscow. A little later, in 1477, the Novgorodians organized a new rebellion, which was also suppressed, and on January 13, 1478, Novgorod completely lost its autonomy and became part of Moscow State.
Ivan settled all the unfavorable princes and boyars of the Novgorod principality throughout Rus', and populated the city itself with Muscovites. In this way he protected himself from further possible revolts.
“Carrot and stick” methods Ivan Vasilievich gathered under his rule the Yaroslavl, Tver, Ryazan, Rostov principalities, as well as the Vyatka lands.
The end of the Mongol yoke.
While Akhmat was waiting for Casimir's help, Ivan Vasilyevich sent a sabotage detachment under the command of the Zvenigorod prince Vasily Nozdrovaty, who went down the Oka River, then along the Volga and began to destroy Akhmat's possessions in the rear. Ivan III himself moved away from the river, trying to lure the enemy into a trap, as in his time Dmitry Donskoy lured the Mongols into the Battle of the Vozha River. Akhmat did not fall for the trick (either he remembered Donskoy’s success, or he was distracted by sabotage behind him, in the unprotected rear) and retreated from Russian lands. On January 6, 1481, immediately upon returning to the headquarters of the Great Horde, Akhmat was killed by the Tyumen Khan. Civil strife began among his sons ( Akhmatova's children), the result was the collapse of the Great Horde, as well as the Golden Horde (which formally still existed before that). The remaining khanates became completely sovereign. Thus, standing on the Ugra became the official end Tatar-Mongolian yoke, and the Golden Horde, unlike Rus', could not survive the stage of fragmentation - several states, not connected with each other, later emerged from it. Here comes the power Russian state started to grow.
Meanwhile, the peace of Moscow was also threatened by Poland and Lithuania. Even before standing on the Ugra, Ivan III entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Gerey, the enemy of Akhmat. The same alliance helped Ivan in containing pressure from Lithuania and Poland.
In the 80s of the 15th century, the Crimean Khan defeated the Polish-Lithuanian troops and destroyed their possessions in the territory of what is now central, southern and western Ukraine. Ivan III entered the battle for the western and northwestern lands controlled by Lithuania.
In 1492, Casimir died, and Ivan Vasilyevich took the strategically important fortress of Vyazma, as well as many settlements in the territory of what is now Smolensk, Oryol and Kaluga regions.
In 1501, Ivan Vasilyevich obliged the Livonian Order to pay tribute for Yuryev - from that moment Russian-Livonian War temporarily stopped. The continuation was already Ivan IV Grozny.
Until the end of his life, Ivan maintained friendly relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates, but later relations began to deteriorate. Historically, this is associated with the disappearance of the main enemy - the Great Horde.
In 1497, the Grand Duke developed his collection of civil laws called Code of Law, and also organized Boyar Duma.
The Code of Law almost officially established such a concept as “ serfdom", although the peasants still retained some rights, for example, the right to transfer from one owner to another in St. George's Day. Nevertheless, the Code of Law became a prerequisite for the transition to an absolute monarchy.
On October 27, 1505, Ivan III Vasilyevich died, judging by the description of the chronicles, from several strokes.
Under the Grand Duke, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Moscow, literature (in the form of chronicles) and architecture flourished. But the most important achievement of that era was liberation of Rus' from Mongol yoke.
