19th century became for the culture of Russia a period of its unprecedented rise. The Patriotic War of 1812, having stirred up the entire life of Russian society, accelerated the formation of national self-consciousness. On the one hand, it once again brought Russia closer to the West, and on the other hand, it accelerated the formation of Russian culture as one of the European cultures, closely connected with the Western European currents of social thought and artistic culture, and exerting its own influence on it.
Western philosophical and political teachings were assimilated by Russian society in relation to Russian reality. The memory of the French Revolution was still fresh. Revolutionary romanticism, brought to Russian soil, caused close attention to the problems of the state and social structure, the issue of serfdom, and so on. A key role in the ideological disputes of the XIX century. played the question of the historical path of Russia and its relationship with Europe and Western European culture. This question was first asked by P.A. Chaadaev, later he led to the ideological delimitation of Westerners and Slavophiles among the Russian intelligentsia. Westerners (T.M. Granovsky, S.M. Solovyov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin) perceived Russia as part of European society and advocated the development of the country along the European path, for liberal reforms in the social and political structure . Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, P.V. and I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin) had a more complex relationship to European culture. They were brought up on German classical philosophy, in particular on the philosophy of Hegel with his idea of a national spirit. Based on this premise, the Slavophils emphasized the original path of development of Russia, different from the Western one, pointed to the national character of culture, and fought against an uncritical attitude towards foreign influences (A.S. Khomyakov).
Since the 40s. under the influence of Western utopian socialism, revolutionary democracy begins to develop in Russia.
All these phenomena in the social thought of the country largely determined the development of the artistic culture of Russia in the 19th century, and above all, its close attention to social problems, publicism.
19th century rightly called the "golden age" of Russian literature, the era when Russian literature not only acquires its own identity, but, in turn, has a serious impact on world culture.
In the first decades of the XIX century. in literature, there is a noticeable departure from the educational ideology, a predominant attention to the person and his inner world, feelings. These changes were associated with the spread of the aesthetics of romanticism, which involved the creation of a generalized ideal image, opposed to reality, the assertion of a strong, free personality, neglecting the conventions of society. Often the ideal was seen in the past, which caused an increased interest in national history. The emergence of romanticism in Russian literature is associated with the ballads and elegies of V.A. Zhukovsky; the works of the Decembrist poets, as well as the early works of A.S. Pushkin brought to him the ideals of the struggle for the "oppressed freedom of man", the spiritual liberation of the individual. The Romantic movement laid the foundations of the Russian historical novel (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), as well as the tradition of literary translation. Romantic poets first introduced the Russian reader to the works of Western European and ancient authors. V.A. Zhukovsky was a translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller. We still read the Iliad translated by N.I. Gnedich.
In 1830-50s. The development of literature was associated with a gradual movement from romanticism to realism, the correlation depicted in a literary work with "life truth". This transitional period was one of the periods of the rise of Russian literature, marked by the work of A.S. Pushkin - the creator of the norms of the modern Russian literary language of classical samples of all literary genres: lyrical and epic poetry, novel, story and short story, as well as M.Yu. Lermontov and N.V. Gogol.
Critical realism, which was formed in Russian literature, was distinguished by an increased interest in social issues related to acute conflicts in Russian society. This was especially characteristic of the authors of the "natural school" - I.A. Goncharova, N.A. Nekrasov, early works of I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Ostrovsky. One of the features of the natural school was attention to fate " little man"(Gogol, Dostoevsky, Nekrasov), the life of a serf (essays by V.I. Dahl, "Notes of a Hunter" by I.S. Turgenev), the world of Russian merchants (A.N. Ostrovsky).
In the post-reform era of the 1860-70s. these tendencies persisted, and the ideological conflicts of the time were reflected in the literary works of that era. At this time, the heyday of the Russian classical novel falls. At this time they create their the best works I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy. In their writings, the attention to social conflicts characteristic of critical realism was enriched, and sometimes relegated to the background, by deep psychologism and philosophical generalizations concerning the fate of Russia and Western culture, their relationship, the search for spiritual support in Christianity (Orthodoxy or its own interpretation, like Tolstoy ). Being the pinnacle of the achievements of Russian literature of the 19th century, these works also influenced the development of world culture, becoming an integral part of it.
End of the 19th century witnessed the "theatrical revolution" of K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, who created the Moscow Art Theater in 1898. The essence of the "revolution" was the rejection of the system of the manner of the game, false pathos, recitation, conventions of staging. The Moscow Art Theater organically combined the best traditions of the Russian theater of the 19th century. and new ideas that implied the creation of an acting ensemble, increased requirements for penetration into the psychology of the characters.
In the first half of the XIX century. the birth of a national music school. In the first decades of the XIX century. dominated by romantic tendencies, manifested in the work of A.N. Verstovsky, who used historical subjects in his work. The founder of the Russian musical school was M.I. Glinka, the creator of the main musical genres: operas ("Ivan Susanin", "Ruslan and Lyudmila"), symphonies, romance, who actively used folklore motifs in his work. An innovator in the field of music was A.S. Dargomyzhsky, author of the opera-ballet "The Triumph of Bacchus" and the creator of recitative in the opera. His music was closely connected with the work of the composers of the "Mighty Handful" - M.P. Mussorgsky, M.A. Balakireva, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, who aspired to embody in their works "life, no matter where it affects", actively turning to historical plots and folklore motifs. Their work established the genre of musical drama. "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Snow Maiden" and "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky-Korsakov are the pride of Russian and world art.
A special place in Russian music is occupied by P.I. Tchaikovsky, who embodied in his works the inner drama and attention to the inner world of a person, characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century, to which the composer often turned (the operas Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa).
In the first half of the XIX century. classical ballet and French choreographers (A. Blache, A. Tityus) dominated. The second half of the century is the birth of classical Russian ballet. Its pinnacle was the production of ballets by P.I. Tchaikovsky (" Swan Lake"," Sleeping Beauty ") by the St. Petersburg choreographer M. I. Petipa.
The influence of romanticism in painting manifested itself primarily in the portrait. The works of O.A. Kiprensky and V.A. Tropinin, far from civic pathos, asserted the naturalness and freedom of human feelings. The idea of the romantics about a person as a hero of a historical drama was embodied in the canvases of K.P. Bryullov ("The Last Day of Pompeii"), A.A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People"). The attention to national, folk motives characteristic of romanticism was manifested in the images of peasant life created by A.G. Venetsianov and painters of his school. The art of landscape is also experiencing a rise (S.F. Shchedrin, M.I. Lebedev, Ivanov). By the middle of the XIX century. genre painting comes to the fore. Canvases by P.A. Fedotov, addressed to events in the life of peasants, soldiers, petty officials, demonstrate attention to social problems, a close connection between painting and literature.
The turn of the 19th - 20th centuries is the period of a new take-off of Russian culture. This is the time of rethinking the traditions and values of Russian and world culture of the 19th century. It is filled with religious and philosophical quests, rethinking the role of the artist's creative activity, its genres and forms. During this period, the thinking of artists is freed from politicization, the unconscious, irrational in man, boundless subjectivism comes to the fore. The "Silver Age" was a time of artistic discoveries and new directions.
Since the 90s. in the literature, a direction called symbolism begins to take shape (K.D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusov, F.K. Sollogub, A. Bely, A.A. Blok). Rebelling against critical realism, the symbolists put forward the principle of intuitive comprehension of the spiritual basis of being, attention to symbols (through which it is revealed). The new principles of the work of the Symbolists were the versatility, and consequently, the ambiguity and understatement of the images, the vagueness and indefinite main idea of the work. On the other hand, symbolism enriched means of expression poetic language, formed an idea of the intuitive nature of art. The work of the Symbolists was greatly influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Already by 1909, symbolism as a trend was practically disintegrating.
The trend of acmeism that arose in 1912 (N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Kuzmin), in contrast to irrational symbolism, demanded clarity and harmony from art , asserted the inherent value of the phenomena of life and the ideal of a "strong personality" in its Nietzsche interpretation.
Another influential trend in literature and aesthetics was futurism (D.D. Burliuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh). The Futurists proclaimed the rejection of traditions, they perceived the word not as a means, but as an independent organism, developing thanks to the activity of the poet and having no connection with reality.
Along with new trends, traditional realism continued to develop (A.P. Chekhov, A.I. Kuprin, I.A. Bunin).
At the beginning of the 20th century Russian avant-garde (V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Filonov, M. Chagall) becomes a noticeable phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world culture. One of the goals of the avant-garde was to create a new art that would reveal the realm of the impulsive and the subconscious. K. Malevich was one of the theorists of Suprematism, who argued (under the influence of the ideas of Schopenhauer and A. Bergson) that the world is based on some kind of excitement, "anxiety" that controls the states of nature and the artist himself. It was this "excitation" that the artist had to comprehend in his own inner world and convey with the help of painting (without giving it any objective expression).
In Russian painting at the beginning of the 20th century. the influence of impressionism is also noticeable (V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Grabar).
The theater did not remain aloof from the influence of symbolism. The search for a new stage art gave Russian and world culture the conventional theater of V.E. Meyerhold (Komissarzhevskaya Theatre, Alexandrinsky Theatre), Chamber Theater A.Ya. Tairov, E. Vakhtangov Studio.
In the music of the modern era, which was influenced by late romanticism, attention was paid to the inner experiences of a person, his emotions, lyricism and refinement, characteristic of the works of S.I. Taneeva, A.N. Scriabin, A.K. Glazunova, S.V. Rachmaninov.
In the era of modernity, cinema takes its place in Russian culture. The first screenings took place in 1896, and by 1914 there were already about 30 firms operating in Russia that released more than 300 films. In the cinema of the early 20th century. psychological realism was affirmed, close to the traditions of Russian literature (The Queen of Spades, Father Sergius by Ya.P. Protazanov).The stars of silent films were VV Kholodnaya, II Mozzhukhin.
Russian artistic culture of the early XX century. was more than ever open to the West, sensitively reacting to new trends in philosophy and aesthetics and at the same time opening up to European society. The "Russian Seasons" in Paris, organized by Diaghilev, played a huge role here. Since 1906 S. Diaghilev introduced the Parisian society to the achievements of Russian artistic culture by organizing an exhibition dedicated to the history of Russian art, Russian music (from Glinka to Rachmaninov) - by organizing concerts and staging opera performances with the best Russian conductors and singers (Chaliapin, Sobinov, etc.) . The seasons of Russian ballet began in 1909, which opened for both Russia and Europe the productions of M. Fokine ("The Firebird" and "Petrushka" by I.F. Stravinsky), in which A. Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V Nijinsky, M. Mordkin, S. Fedorova. The Russian seasons of Diaghilev actually revived the ballet theater of Western Europe.
Because the 20th century - the age of rapidly changing social systems, dynamic cultural processes, it is very risky to give unambiguous assessments of the development of the culture of this period and only some characteristic features can be distinguished.
In the history of culture of the XX century. three periods can be distinguished:
- 1) the beginning of the 20th century - 1917 (acute dynamics of socio-political processes, a variety of artistic forms, styles, philosophical concepts);
- 2) 20-30 years. (radical restructuring, some stabilization of cultural dynamics, the formation of a new form of culture - socialist),
- 3) post-war 40s. throughout the second half of the 20th century. (the time of the formation of regional cultures, the rise of national consciousness, the emergence of international movements, the rapid development of technology, the emergence of new advanced technologies, the active development of territories, the merging of science with production, the change of scientific paradigms, the formation of a new worldview). Culture is a system, everything in it is interconnected and mutually determined.
In the 1920s, the systematic implementation of the cultural policy of the party began, in which any philosophical or other system of ideas that went beyond the limits of Marxism in its Leninist version was qualified as "bourgeois", "landlord", "clerical" and recognized as counter-revolutionary and anti-Soviet, that is, dangerous for the very existence of the new political system. Ideological intolerance has become the basis of official policy Soviet power in the field of ideology and culture.
In the minds of the bulk of the population, the establishment of a narrow class approach to culture began. Class suspicion of the old spiritual culture and anti-intellectual sentiments spread widely in society. Slogans were constantly spread about distrust of education, about the need for a "vigilant" attitude towards old specialists, who were regarded as an anti-people force. This principle extended to an even greater degree and in a rigid form to the work of representatives of the intelligentsia. A political monopolism is being established in science, art, philosophy, in all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the persecution of representatives of the so-called noble and bourgeois intelligentsia. The expulsion of hundreds of thousands of educated people from the country caused irreparable damage to the elite culture, led to an inevitable decline in its overall level. But the proletarian state was extremely suspicious of the intelligentsia that remained in the country. Step by step, the institutions of professional autonomy of the intelligentsia were liquidated - independent publications, creative unions, trade unions. The study of "unconscious" intellectuals, and then the arrests of many of them, became the practice of the 1920s. Ultimately, this ended with the complete defeat of the main body of the old intelligentsia in Russia.
The reforms that began after Stalin's death created more favorable conditions for the development of culture. The exposure of the personality cult at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, the return of hundreds of thousands of repressed people from prisons and exile, including representatives of the creative intelligentsia, the weakening of the censorship press, the development of ties with foreign countries - all this expanded the spectrum of freedom, caused the population, especially young people, utopian dreams of a better life. The time from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s (from the appearance in 1954 of I. Ehrenburg's story called "The Thaw" to the opening of the trial of A. Sinyavsky and Yu. Daniel in February 1966) entered the history of the USSR under the name "thaw".
The beginning of the 1990s was marked by the accelerated disintegration of the unified culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values of the common culture of the USSR, but also the cultural traditions of each other. Such a sharp opposition of different national cultures led to an increase in socio-cultural tension, to the emergence of military conflicts and subsequently caused the collapse of a single socio-cultural space. But the processes of cultural development are not interrupted with the collapse of state structures and the fall of political regimes.
culture new Russia, is connected with all previous periods of the country's history. At the same time, the new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed radically. The state has ceased to dictate its requirements to culture, and culture has lost a guaranteed customer.
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The main directions of philosophy of the 20th century
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The turn of the 19th–20th centuries is the period of a new rise in Russian culture. This is the time of rethinking the traditions and values of Russian and world culture of the 19th century. It is filled with religious and philosophical quests, rethinking the role of the artist's creative activity, its genres and forms.
A feature of Russian culture of this period is the formation of a twofold path of development: realism and decadence, united on present stage the concept of "Silver Age" culture. This testifies to the dualistic perception of the world, so characteristic of both romanticism and new art. The first path of cultural development concentrated the traditions of the 19th century, the aesthetics of the Wanderers and the philosophy of populism. The second path was developed by the aesthetic intelligentsia, which severed its connection with the diversity.
Decadence in Russia has become a reflection of religious philosophy, incorporating the aesthetics of symbolism. Western European culture also developed in many ways, where decadence and symbolism were parallel currents in poetry and philosophy. In Russia, both of these concepts are quickly becoming synonymous. This leads to the formation of two schools: Moscow and St. Petersburg, which developed both aesthetic concepts. If the Petersburg school sought to overcome individualism on the basis of the mystical-religious philosophy of Vl. Solovyov, the Moscow school most fully absorbed European traditions. Here there was a special interest in the philosophy of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, in the synaestheticism of French poetry.
An analysis of the social and cultural life of the late 19th century shows that the mood of certain stability, common in society in the 1980s, is being replaced by some kind of psychological tension, the expectation of a “great upheaval” (L. Tolstoy). In one of the letters of 1901, M. Gorky noted that "the new century will truly be a century of spiritual renewal."
From the mid-1990s, a social upsurge began again in the socio-political life of Russia, a feature of which was a broad liberal movement, the participation of workers in revolutionary democratic demonstrations.
The Russian intelligentsia turned out to be almost helpless in the face of the new demands of political development: a multi-party system inevitably developed, and real practice was far ahead of the theoretical understanding of the principles of the new political culture.
All these trends proceeded against the background of the growing diversity of spiritual life that accompanied the development of capitalism and the weakening of authoritarian control by the autocracy.
The variety of forces fighting in the political arena, the special nature of the Russian revolution influenced culture, the creative and ideological searches of its leaders, opened up new paths for socio-cultural development. The complexity and inconsistency of historical reality have led to the diversity of forms of the cultural-historical process.
Philosophical and aesthetic thought in Russia as an independent branch of knowledge developed with some delay and had a number of features at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, primarily due to the border position of Russians between Europe and Asia and their unique spiritual world. Special specifics cultural theories of that time gave a sense of instability, instability, uncertainty and nervousness in Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries.
In Russian philosophical and aesthetic thought of the XIX - the first half of the XX century. the forerunner of Russian cosmism N.F. Fedorov contributed; philosopher V.V. Rozanov, who proclaimed family and sexual life to be the basis of faith; a supporter of the reconciliation of science and religion, S.L. Frank, who contributed to the formation of an existentialist view of culture; the soothsayer of future world catastrophes and the creator of the philosophy of the absurdity and tragedy of human existence, L.I. Shestakov, who spoke out against the dictates of reason over the spiritual freedom of the individual, and others.
The complex social processes that engulfed Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the growing political instability, and the search for ways to further develop the country made it especially relevant to discuss issues of a social science nature. It included representatives of various scientific specialties and ideological currents. An important factor in the ideological development of Russia was the spread of Marxism. The most prominent theoreticians of Russian Marxism were the leaders of the social democratic movement V.I. Lenin, G.V. Plekhanov, N.I. Bukharin. The positions of "legal Marxism" were initially supported by the famous Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev, who later switched to seeking God in the spirit of religious existentialism and the economist M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky. The most significant of the non-Marxist thinkers were the sociologist P.A. Sorokin, who emigrated from the country after the revolution; economist, philosopher and historian PB Struve. Russian religious philosophy was bright and original. Its most significant representatives are V.S.Soloviev, Prince S.N.Trubetskoy, S.N.Bulgakov, P.A.Florensky.
The leading trend in the literary process of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. It is especially brightly reflected in the work of A.P. Chekhov. Talent A.P. Chekhov manifested itself, first of all, in stories and plays in which the writer amazingly accurately, with subtle humor and slight sadness, showed the life of ordinary people - provincial landowners, zemstvo doctors, county young ladies, behind the monotonous course of whose life a real tragedy arose - unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled aspirations that turned out to be useless to anyone - strength, knowledge, love.
The appearance of Russian literature at the turn of the century changed quite seriously. Maxim Gorky entered Russian culture with a bright and original talent. A native of the people, who took shape as a personality thanks to persistent self-education, he enriched Russian literature with images unusual in strength and novelty. Gorky took a direct part in the revolutionary movement, actively contributing to the activities of the RSDLP. He put his literary talent to the service political struggle. At the same time, it is impossible to reduce all of Gorky's work only to a narrow political enlightenment. As a real talent, he was wider than any ideological boundaries. Of lasting importance are his "Song of the Petrel", the autobiographical trilogy "Childhood", "In People", "My Universities", the plays "At the Bottom", "Vassa Zheleznova", the novel "The Life of Klim Samgin".
A significant role in the literary life of the turn of the century was played by V. G. Korolenko (“The History of My Contemporary”), L. N. Andreev (“Red Laughter”, “The Tale of the Seven Hanged Men”), A. I. Kuprin (“Olesya”, "Pit", "Pomegranate Bracelet"), I. A. Bunin ("Antonov apples", "Village").
Great changes took place at the turn of the century in poetry. Critical realism of poets of the second half of the 19th century. is replaced by innovative, free-flying artistic fantasy, mysterious, whimsical, mystical poetry of the "Silver Age". A characteristic feature of the life of the poetic environment of that time was the emergence of artistic associations that professed certain creative principles. One of the first to emerge was the movement of the Symbolists. It was formed in 1890-1900. The first generation of symbolists included D.S.Merezhkovsky, Z.Gippius, K.D.Balmont, V.Ya.Bryusov, F.Sologub. The second includes A.A. Blok, A. Bely, V.I. Ivanov.
The key to the aesthetics of symbolism was the desire to convey one's sense of the world through poetic "symbols", a kind of half-hints, for the correct understanding of which it was necessary to abstract from the direct, mundane perception of reality and intuitively see, or rather, feel in everyday images a sign of a higher mystical essence, to touch the global the secrets of the universe, to Eternity, etc.
Later, a new poetic direction, acmeism, emerged from symbolism (from the Greek akme - a point, highest point heyday). The works of N.S. Gumilyov, the early works of O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova belong to him. Acmeists abandoned the aesthetics of allusion inherent in symbolism. They are characterized by a return to a clear, simple poetic language and an accurate, "tangible" image.
True innovation was literary activity masters of the Russian avant-garde. In 1913, a direction arose that was called futurism (from the Latin futurum - the future). The Futurists, among whom there were many very talented poets (V.V. Mayakovsky, A.E. Kruchenykh, the Burliuk brothers, I. Severyanin, V. Khlebnikov), are characterized by bold experiments with the word, with poetic form. The works of the Futurists - "poetry of the future" were sometimes very coldly perceived by the reading public, but the creative search they conducted had a huge impact on the further development of Russian literature.
The end of the XIX-XX century is one of the most difficult periods in the development of world culture. This time is marked by world wars, social cataclysms, national conflicts; this is the period of scientific and technological progress, the beginning of nuclear, space age human civilization. All this determined the versatility and inconsistency of sociocultural processes, led to the search for new artistic systems, methods, trends.
With all the diversity of cultural phenomena of the late 19th-20th centuries, two main trends in artistic development can be distinguished: these are realism and non-realistic trends, called modernism (fr. moderne - the latest, modern) or avant-garde. This opposition was embodied in various types art.
The philosophical ideas of A. Schopenhauer, I. Hartmann, F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson formed the basis of various trends in art of the 20th century, associated with a departure from realism and united in the concept of modernism.
The first artistic trend of this plan was Fauvism (from the French fauve - wild), its representatives were called "wild". In 1905, at an exhibition in Paris, A. Matisse, A. Derain, A. Marquet and others exhibited their paintings, which struck with a sharp contrast of colors and simplification of forms.
Henri Matisse (1869-1954) - a painter of bright color and decorative talent, started as a realist, went through a passion for impressionism, but in search of an increased intensity of pure and sonorous color, he came to a simplification of forms, in which there is almost no volume. The composition is based on the contrast of colors, the rhythm of the lines of the drawing, large color planes. The convention of form and space leads to the ornamental nature of the canvases (still life "Red Fish", "Family Portrait", panels "Dance", "Music" and others).
The work of the landscape painter A. Marquet (1875-1947), who later became one of the most consistent realists in the European landscape of the first half of the 20th century, developed in the same direction.
Almost simultaneously with Fauvism, cubism arose - a trend associated with the names of the artists Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Georges Braque (1882-1963) and the poet Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918). From Cezanne, the Cubists took the tendency to schematize objects, but they went further - to decomposing the image of an object on a plane and combining these planes. Color was deliberately expelled from painting, which struck with the asceticism of the palette. Cubism had a significant impact on the development of world painting.
P. Picasso paid tribute to his passion for cubism ("Three Women", "Portrait of Vollard" and others), but his complex, intense creative life, imbued with endless quests, does not fit into the scheme of any one method or direction. Already in the early period of creativity ("blue" - 1901-1904 and "pink" - 1905-1906), the power of his psychological penetration into human characters, destinies, humanism, special sensitivity is manifested. The heroes of his paintings are wandering actors, acrobats, lonely and destitute people ("Old beggar with a boy", "Girl on a ball", "Absinthe drinkers" and others). Already here the artist turned to increased expressiveness of forms, to expressiveness. In the future, a sense of the disharmony of the world leads P. Picasso to strengthen the methods of deformation in painting.
The versatility of Picasso's work is striking. These are illustrations for Ovid's "Metamorphoses" - drawings resurrecting the light humanism of antiquity, realistic portraits and still lifes, made in a unique individual manner; these are graphic works that reveal the themes of universal evil, gloomy power embodied in the images of the minotaur and other monsters; this is the panel "Guernica" (1937) - a deeply tragic work denouncing fascism, solved in the style of cubism. Many of Picasso's works are full of light, admiration for the beauty of a person ("Mother and Child", "Dance with Banderillas", portraits and others). Speaking with deep respect for his great predecessors, Encasso depicted the world seen through the eyes of a man of the 20th century.
In 1909, a new modernist trend was born in Italy - futurism (Latin futurum - future). Its origins were the poet T. Marinetti (1876-1944), who published the first Futurist manifesto. The group included artists U. Boccioni (1882-1916), C. Carra (1881-1966), G. Severini (1883-1966) and others. The manifesto contained a call to sing the beauty of speed and the aggressiveness of movement characteristic of the 20th century, but at the same time to destroy libraries, museums, academies of "all sorts".
Italian futurism has always emphasized its anti-democratic orientation. The "Political Program of Futurism" (1913) affirmed the ideas of militarism and national superiority. In the field of artistic creativity, all traditional principles were deposed, realistic forms were rejected, even Cubism was reproached for "excessive realism", the Futurists hoped to recreate in art the physical phenomena of nature - sound, speed, electricity, etc. They argued that only their creativity could reproduce the pulse of modern life (Boccioni "Elasticity", "Laughter", Carra "Portrait of Marinetti", Severini "Blue Dancer" and others).
Both cubism and futurism interrupted their development in connection with the First World War, although certain phenomena of these currents became further widespread. In Russia, futurism was embodied in the poetry of D. Burliuk, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, which had the character of shocking the surrounding society, rejecting classical traditions.
The creative work of artists united by the ideas of expressionism, which originated in Germany, was distinguished by its originality. The initiator of the current was E. L. Kirchner (1880-1938), the group included K. Schmidt-Rotluff (1884-1970), M. Pechstein (1881-1955), O. Müller (1874-1930) and others. The same direction developed in theatrical and especially cinematography. Having spoken out both against impressionism and against salon art, these artists were looking for harsh, sometimes disharmonious colors, piercing lighting, trying to convey their nervous tension, to convey the strongest human feelings (themes - unemployment, wretched taverns, people of the "bottom", etc.) . Expressionists sought deep psychological expressiveness.
The World War divided the artists, but did not eliminate expressionism. His new supporters appeared: the Belgian K. Permere (1886-1952) and F. Van den Berghe (1883-1939), J. Kruger (1894-1941) in Luxembourg and others. The influence of expressionism on contemporary artists is also noticeable. For example, the Swedish sculptor B. Nyström works in this regard (the sculpture "... now my road is getting dark", dedicated to the poet D. Anderson, and others). Expressionist techniques allow you to reveal the theme of the tragic situations of modern life.
The reality of the 20th century, the level of technological progress gave a twofold idea of the material and non-material world. Matter, space, time, space, waves, oscillations, vibrations, X-rays, later laser radiation, atomic energy, etc. - all this did not lend itself to sensory perception of the world, objects seemed only a deceptive appearance. And art was born that reflected this new attitude.
In 1910, the Russian artist V. Kandinsky (1816-1944) created his "Compositions", which gave rise to a new trend in world painting, called abstractionism (non-objective art). His compositions were symbols of a subjective inner state that retained a connection with the aesthetics of the psychological "mood" characteristic of the decadence of the late 19th century.
Representatives of this new non-objective art believed that one should not bind oneself within the framework of optical experience, which gives only illusions. The artist, they argued, must look beyond the outer shell of the world and show its essence, its inner nature.
Kandinsky, having experienced the influence of Cezanne, the Symbolists (his thoughts on the symbolism of color in the treatise "On the Spiritual in Art" are significant), saw in painting an opportunity to embody the unconscious, intuitive, the voice of "inner dictate". Leaving Russia early, Kandinsky lived most of his life in Germany, in France, having a huge impact on modern culture.
It is significant that the Russian Orthodox philosopher Fr. Pavel Florensky draws on the artistic creativity and theoretical propositions of V. Kandinsky to reveal his thoughts about spirituality in art; in abstract painting, he sees the search for the most ideal, transcendent, absolute. The purpose of art, according to P. Florensky, is "overcoming the sensual appearance, the naturalistic bark of the random" and turning to the universally significant, stable and unchanging. He speaks of the inherent value of pure painting, its spiritual orientation, which is in line with the thoughts of V. Kandinsky, set forth in the treatise "On the Spiritual in Art".
Following Kandinsky, artists and theorists from different countries People: K. Malevich, Piet Mondrian, Delaunay, Gleizes, Metzinger, Boccioni, Duusburg, Klee and others. A prominent role in the spread of abstractionism was played by the creative center in Germany, the Bauhaus, where Kandinsky, Klee and other leaders of the movement taught.
In the 30s of the XX century, abstract art finds followers in the United States. During the Second World War, these trends are strengthened due to the fact that many cultural figures, fleeing fascism, emigrate to the United States. These are Piet Mondrian, Hans Richter and others, and Marc Chagall also lives here during this period. A group of American abstract expressionists is being formed: J. Pollock, A. Gorky, V. de Kuing, M. Rothko, their follower in Europe A. Wolf. In their works, they use not only paints, but also other materials to create the greatest relief.
The central figure in American abstract painting is Jackson Pollock (1912-1956). Claiming that it is not the result that is important, but the process of creativity, he turned painting into a mystical process. His method was called "dripping" or "drayping" (random scattering of paints from a can with brushes).
In France, a parallel to this method of writing was tachisme (painting with spots). The French abstract artist J. Mathieu gave his paintings historical names: "The Battle of Bouvin", "Capetians Everywhere", etc. The British called this technique in the visual arts "action painting".
In the 1960s, modernism emerged in the United States under the names of "pop art" (popular art) and "op art" (optical art). "Pop Art" was a kind of reaction to abstractionism. He contrasted non-objective art with the rough world of quite real things. Artists of this trend believe that every item can become a work of art. Things connected in special combinations acquire new qualities. Similar works were presented at the exhibition "New Realism" (Gallery S. Janis, then the Guggenheim Museum of Contemporary Art, 1962). In 1964, the largest international exhibition took place in Venice - the Biennale, where exhibits of "pop art" (various things in random combinations) were presented; authors - J. Chamberlain, K. Oldenburg, J. Dine and others. The largest master of "pop art" is Robert Rauschenberg (early work "Picture of Time": a clock, etc., is attached to a canvas painted over with paints). Since 1963, he has mastered the silk-screen printing method as a way of transferring various photographs, posters, reproductions to canvas, which are combined with pieces of oil painting and various objects (compositions "Settings", "Researcher").
Causing passionate disputes, "Pop Art", however, found its consistent, received its official recognition and penetrated the exhibition halls of France, Italy, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, even the Royal Academy in London.
"Op Art" opposed itself to "Pop Art". This direction went along the path of a new abstraction, creating a swap of a special world, a special environment and forms. The creators of "op art" abandoned canvases and paints. Of paramount importance in their designs of wood, glass and metal are the effects of color and light (they are created using lenses, mirrors, rotating mechanisms, etc.). This flickering of rays forms a semblance of ornaments and is a spectacular sight. Op-art exhibitions have been known since 1965: "Sensitive Eye", "Color Dynamism", "11 Vibrations", "Impulse" and others. The achievements of "op-art" were used in industry and applied arts (furniture, fabrics, dishes, clothes).
In the 1920s, a new direction of avant-garde art, surrealism, was formed. The name is borrowed from Apollinaire and means "supra-realism", although there are other interpretations: "super-realism", "super-realism". The founder of the group of artists and writers was the writer and art theorist A. Breton, he was joined by J. Arp, M. Ernst, L. Aragon, P. Eluard and others. They were sure that the unconscious and unreasonable beginning personified the highest truth, which should be embodied in art.
This trend was influenced by the philosophy of A. Bergson, his thoughts on intuitive insight. But of particular importance for the surrealists was the theory of psychoanalysis by the Austrian physician and philosopher Z. Freud, which contains the substantiation of the subconscious factors of the psyche, which are the stimulus for the creative activity of the artist.
Surrealism, according to A. Breton, is based on the belief in the higher reality of certain forms of associations, in the omnipotence of dreams, in the free play of thinking (three "Manifestos of Surrealism" from 1924 to 1930). A prominent representative of early surrealism, Max Ernst (1881-1976), was the first to try to give various mystical elements the appearance of real existence. This trend manifested itself in painting, sculpture, literature, theater, cinema art of various countries: France, Germany, Spain, Belgium, England, USA, Latin America, etc. Surrealism became a logical continuation of Dadaism (from French dada - a wooden horse, figuratively meaning - baby talk), its paradoxicality.
A concentrated expression of the features of the artistic language of surrealism is contained in the work of the Spanish artist Salvador Dali (1904-1989). Dali's talent was multifaceted: a painter, theater artist, screenwriter, film director, designer, etc. He never ceased to amaze the audience with the paradox of figurative perception, inexhaustible fantasy. A super-original artist, Dali at the same time constantly engaged in a dialogue with the classics, in his works there are original quotes from Raphael, Vermeer, Michelangelo, which he transformed in his compositional solutions ("Mysterious elements in the landscape", "Spain", "Cranach's Transformation" etc.). His works require a deeper and more complex attitude: "Atomic Leda", "The Face of War", "Geopolitician Watching the Birth of a New Man", "The Temptation of St. Anthony" and others.
One of Dali's most profound paintings is "Premonition of the Civil War" (1936). Two huge creatures, resembling deformed, fused parts of the human body, are linked together in a terrible fight. The face of one of them is distorted by pain and suffering. They evoke a feeling of disgust, they are in contrast to the beautifully painted realistic landscape: miniature images of ancient towns against the backdrop of a low mountain range. The picture symbolizes the anti-war idea, sounds like a call to the human mind, like a stern warning. Dali himself wrote about the painting: "These are not just ghost monsters of the Spanish Civil War, but wars (...) as such."
Significant are the paintings in which Dali turned to the image of Christ: "Christ of Valencia", "Hypercubic crucifixion", " The Last Supper"and especially" Christ of St. John". The crucified Christ is stretched out over the world. He flies over a certain cosmic landscape. The inclined cross fences us off from the gloomy abyss that fills the upper part of the canvas. The crucified Christ, as it were, holds this all-consuming darkness with his sacrifice. For the first time in world art, the artist neglected the canon, determining the composition of the Crucifixion.
Dali's creative heritage is huge; his ideas, images, artistic method are far from unambiguous and rather contradictory, as well as the personality of the artist himself, which will surprise and excite, irritate and delight many generations. Salvador Dali and his work are an essential part of the spiritual heritage of the 20th century.
One of eminent figures culture of the XX century - the French architect Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret, 1887-1965), who was the head of constructivism. He sought to answer the real needs of life, taking into account the possibilities of modern technology. His ideals are the simplicity and clarity of the geometric volumes of reinforced concrete structures (the diorama "Modern City for 3 million inhabitants", 1922, the plan for the reconstruction of the center of Paris - "Plan Voisin", 1925; the project "Radiant City", 1930 and others ). In the last period of his activity, Le Corbusier created an experimental 17-storey residential building in Marseille (1947-1952), in which he sought to solve the problem of the "ideal home", partially implementing the "Radiant City" project. Late works of Le Corbusier include the building of the Secretariat of Chandigarh (India, 1958).
A prominent role in the development of modern architecture was played by the activities of the Bauhaus Center (Germany), headed by V. Gropius. Engineering and technical principles came to the fore, t. including a clearly defined frame of the building.
The development of the American city was determined by the Chicago school: skyscrapers with overhanging walls. The appearance of New York, for example, presents a sharp contrast between skyscrapers (the Empire State Building office building at 102 floors, 407 m high and Rockefeller Center at 72 floors, 384 m high) and many other buildings of various scales. The American architect Wright develops the so-called "prairie style", where he denies skyscrapers, dense buildings and strives for connection with nature (cottages surrounded by gardens, for example, "House over the Falls" in Beer Ran, 1936). P. Nervi (small sports palace in Rome, 1956-1957) and others seek to use the constructive possibilities of reinforced concrete.
Along with the development of avant-garde tendencies in the 20th century, realist artists work fruitfully. As an artistic method, realism is embodied in various forms of art in Europe and America, primarily in painting, literature, and theater.
So, in the USA in 1908, realist artists united in the "Eight" group: G. Henry, D. Sloan, D. Lake and others. They set the task of showing the life of a big city from the inside out (the group's nickname is "Dustbin School"). Famous painters came out of the workshop of G. Henry: D. Bellows, the author of numerous paintings on the themes of modernity, R. Kent and others.
R. Kent (1882-1971) devoted his work to the peoples of Greenland, Alaska, the mighty nature of the Atlantic. The artist depicts a harsh nature untouched by civilization. A clear geographical pattern, lighting contrasts, crystalline forms convey the intense life of nature. The brave inhabitants of the North embody the ideal of a free man, boldly entering the fight against harsh nature.
Along with various schools of modernism, realism is becoming more and more widespread. These tendencies manifested themselves in sculpture. E. A. Bourdelle (1861-1929) - an artist of intense feelings with lofty thoughts. His works: the statue "Shooting Hercules", Apollo, the equestrian statue of General Alvear, the portrait of Beethoven and others. A. Maillol (1861-1944) turned to ancient sculpture, bowing before the noble natural beauty of man: Pomona, a monument to Cezanne, an allegorical statue of Ile-de-France and others. C. Despio (1874-1946) is known as a master of sculptural portraiture.
A peculiar trend in modern American art, called Ridgenonalism; its essence lies in the appeal to the local American theme, to the "soil", as opposed to European art. This direction was headed by the artists T. X. Benton, G. Wood, S. Carrie. Their common program is "America First". However, each of them has a peculiar creative manner.
T. X. Benton (1889) is a versatile artist. He turned to monumental painting, the portrait genre, book graphics. He became famous for his frescoes: murals of the New School of Social Research (1931), Whitney Museum of American Art (1932), Indiana State University (1933), Missouri State Capitol in Jefferson City (1936). These frescoes reflect the events of American history, scenes of folk life, etc. In 1940, Benton illustrated J. Steinbeck's novel The Grapes of Wrath.
G. Wood (1892-1942) turned to the theme of the unity of man with nature ("Woman with a Flower" and others). His portraits are known, the most outstanding of them is "American Gothic" (1930). This is a paired portrait of a farmer and his wife, marked by features of psychological expressiveness.
The theme of creativity S. Carrey (1897-1946) - rural motifs, scenes of the life of farmers, the history of America.
Among the best American realist artists, the Wyeth family should be mentioned: the founder is N.K. Wyeth, who became famous as a book illustrator, his son is Andrew Wyeth, a painter, known in Europe (little member of several European academies), grandson - contemporary artist James Wyeth, working in the manner of traditional realism. Andrew Wyeth's paintings, depicting the world of simple things, the nature of its region, are especially loved. The most famous is "Christina's World": a young woman in the midst of beautiful nature, a person who is in unity with the outside world. The main content of the Wyeth's work is deeply humanistic.
The pictorial school of art in Mexico is also distinguished by national originality, which has a centuries-old tradition - the reflection of its history in monumental works of art. In the 20th century, an artistic direction was formed, called "Mexican muralism". His character traits: innovative spirit and strict adherence to tradition. These are the artists Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros. They created frescoes that reflected the history and modern life of the Mexican people ("The Land of Fruit",
"A nightmare of war and a dream of peace" - D. Rivera, " New Democracy"," In the service of nations "- D. A. Siqueiros and others).
Romantic pathos, images of fighters, the use of elements of ancient Mexican ornamentation and naive folklore dating back to the culture of the most ancient peoples (Maya, Aztecs) are the features of this art, imbued with a widely understood idea of humanity. It is also significant that these outstanding masters solved the problem of the connection between painting and architecture, and introduced photomontage techniques. In the technique of wall painting, new materials are used.
In European fine arts after the Second World War, an important place is occupied by the direction of neorealism, whose representatives turned to the life of the people, the common man, to the characteristics of his inner and outer world. A group of French neorealists was headed by A. Fougeron, a master rationalist who reflected the social upheavals of the 20th century ("Paris 1943", "Glory to Andre Houllier", "Country of Mines", "March 18, 1871" and others).
Neorealism was embodied in the works of B. Taslitsky, graphic artist and caricaturist J. Eiffel. In Italy, where neorealism was also reflected in cinema (Fellini, Vitorio de Sica, Antonioni, Pasolini and others), in painting this direction was headed by Renato Guttuso, an artist-thinker, a politician, a fighter against fascism. The themes of his works are the contrasts of the era, the history of his native country, the images of patriots who die in the name of the motherland, the life of ordinary people in Italy (graphic series "God is with us", "Rocco at the gramophone", a series of paintings "Man in the crowd" and others). Guttuso's realism is enriched by the achievements of post-impressionism and modernism.
The realistic method finds its development in sculpture: the Italian master G. Manzu ("Head of Inge", "Dancers", "Cardinal" and others), sculptors from Scandinavia and Finland, for example, V. Aaltonen (portrait gallery of contemporaries) and others. The work of the Danish graphic cartoonist Herluf Bidstrup, who captured the features of the era in a sharp comic form, should also be noted.
The literary life of Europe and America at the end of the 19th-20th century is represented by the largest names, who also embodied various ideological and aesthetic positions.
In the 90s of the 19th century, the latest European literature began to develop. At the turn of the century, symbolism (A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé), naturalism (E. Zola) appeared in French literature, and realism developed in polemics with these trends. Of the writers of this period, the most significant is Emile Zola (1840-1902), who put forward the theory of the "experimental novel". Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893) also inherited realistic traditions, being on the eve of the 20th century in a state of intense search for new means of artistic expression.
A. France (1844-1944), the author of the satirical and grotesque novels "Penguin Island", "Rise of the Angels" and others, and R. Rolland (1866-1944), creator of the epic "Jean-Christophe ", the story "Cola Brugnon", which continued the tradition of Rabelais. R. Martin du Gard (the novel "The Thibault Family"), F. Mauriac ("The Clew of Serpents") and others stood on the positions of critical realism.
After the Second World War, French prose, analyzing the social conflicts of the era, turns to life various classes Society: M. Druon "Powerful of this world", E. Valen "Family Rezo" and others. Realistic and naturalistic traditions are intertwined in the work of Francoise Sagan.
The ideas of existentialism, the formulation of moral problems are embodied in the work of A. Camus (the story "The Outsider", the novel "The Plague"), in the "new novel" by Natalie Sarrot ("Golden Fruits"). There is a "theater of the absurd" (lat. absurdus - ridiculous), feeding on the ideas of A. Camus, J. P. Sartre. These are the plays by E. Ionesco "The Bald Singer", S. Beckett's "Waiting for Godot" and others. A significant contribution to the culture of France was made by R. Merle, a detractor of fascism and war ("Death is my trade"), Louis Aragon (poet, publisher, novelist) and many others.
The line of the European novel unfolds at the turn of the century in English literature, where it is represented by the realistic works of J. Galsworthy (the trilogy "The Forsyte Saga"), W. S. Maugham ("The Burden of Human Passions"), E. M. Forster ("The Trip to India") and others. Herbert Wells (1866-1946), the author of well-known novels such as The Time Machine, The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, and others, was the creator of the modern-day social fantasy novel genre. In parallel with the fantastic, he will create social and everyday novels ("Wheel of Fortune", "Mr. Field's Story").
"The encyclopedia of modernism" was called the novel by J. Joyce (1882-1941) "Ulysses", which laid the foundation for the literature of the "stream of consciousness", reflecting the subtlest nuances of the spiritual life of the characters. The same aesthetic position was occupied by D. Richardson, W. Wolfe, D. G. Lawrence. The social life of the country was reflected by the writers of the so-called "lost generation" who gravitated towards realism: R. Aldington (1892-1962) - the novels "The Death of a Hero", "All People Are Enemies", A. Cronin (1896-1981) - "The Stars Look Down "," The Citadel "and others, D. Priestley (1894-1984) - the novels" Good Comrades "," Wizards "and others.
The tradition of the development of the novel continues after the Second World War. In the dystopias of J. Orwell (1903-1950) - the satire "Animal Farm", "1984" and others - the writer's pessimistic view of socialist society, horror of the possible victory of totalitarianism found expression. The novels of Iris Murdoch (1919-1999) "Under the Net", "The Bell", "The Black Prince" and others are imbued with existentialist motives. These works are filled with intense creative quest, faith in the strength of a person who is able to resist the chaos of life. The greatest novelist of the 20th century is Graham Greene (1904-1991): "The Quiet American", "Comedians", "Honorary Consul" and others. Social criticism here is combined with deep psychologism. Developing the traditions of European romance, he creates a series of novels "Strangers and Brothers" by Ch. P. Snow (1905-1980). Political themes are revealed in the novels by J. Aldridge (b. 1918) Diplomat, Mountains and Weapons, Sea Eagle, and others.
The modern English novel is distinguished by its thematic diversity: anti-colonial theme (D. Stewart, N. Lewis), science fiction (A. Clarke, J. Wyndham), philosophical themes (C. Wilson), socio-political themes in grotesque novels and short stories by M. Spark and others, detectives (Agatha Christie, J. Le Carre and others).
Remarkable samples of the novel were given by the literature of the United States. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries - the work of Mark Twain (1835-1910), Jack London (1876-1916) and others. One of the pinnacles of American critical realism of the 20th century is the work of Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945). His novels reflected the social conflicts of the time, the tragedy of man in the world of evil, deep humanistic ideas. The pinnacle of Dreiser's work is the novel "An American Tragedy", an outstanding work of critical realism.
Deep psychologism and realism distinguish the work of Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961). In his works, he embodied humanistic ideas, revealed the drama of the historical process, expressed faith in man and his active humanism. Notable writers USA: J. Salinger, J. Updike, J. Baldwin, J. Cheever, K. Vonnegut, R. Bradbury and others.
If we try to capture in our mind's eye the entire European culture of the 19th - 20th centuries in the main aspects of its development, then the semantic core of this development will be the unceasing struggle for the freedom of man, for the inalienability of his rights as a person. In the system of cultural representations of previous epochs, the personality was somehow rooted in a certain general order - social, moral, human, divine; starting from the 19th century, she (i.e., a person) begins to feel her insecurity in front of a society hostile to her.
The turn of the 18th - 19th centuries is a turning point in the history of European culture, which is commonly called romantic. In the 1810-1820s, a powerful romantic movement arose in literature (E. T. A. Hoffmann, G. Heine in Germany, D. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley, D. Keats, W. Scott in England, A. Lamartine, A. de Vigny, V. Hugo in France, etc.).
The ideas of the Enlightenment gave rise to the idea that the world order is based on the idea of the human mind. Having ceased to rely on God, man became an independent participant in the historical process, while gaining absolute freedom and independence in everything.
The temptation of freedom came from France, which overthrew the feudal absolutist system in 1789 and proclaimed the advent of a new era, the era of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." But very soon these illusions turned into a crash.
Romantics came to the bitter realization that the expansion of the range of personal freedom acquired in the course of bourgeois upheavals is not an absolute good, but a very, very relative one. The bourgeois plebeian element, which had gained freedom, disposed of it by no means in accordance with the principles of reason and morality, but with the interests of the stomach and wallet. It is interesting that the "fruits of enlightenment" - the expansion of the possibilities of mass production of artistic products, the growth of its general accessibility - carry the danger of subordinating art to the laws of the market. And how can one not recall the words of Goethe that “the art that laid the floors of the ancients, that built vaults-heavens Christian churches, now crushed and spent on snuff boxes and bracelets. The Great French Revolution became a real “Apocalypse of history” for European culture (N. Berdyaev).
The philosophical ground for romanticism is idealism, the essence of which is the spiritual sphere of human life, the search for the ideal principle of being. A parallel should be drawn with the era of the Middle Ages, where a large place was occupied by the supersensible principle. Romanticism is characterized by religious quests, which acquire an aesthetic coloring. A romantic seeks God, but finds Beauty, and vice versa. But what distinguishes romanticism from the Middle Ages is, first of all, the cult of freedom, the cult of individuality. The religious feeling of the romantics is of a personal nature, therefore a person in this period of historical development no longer needs the church, since he is already born with this feeling of "mystery".
The words from Pico della Mirandola's treatise “Speech on the Dignity of Man” by Pico della Mirandola can rightly be considered the slogan of the romantics: “I made you not earthly, not heavenly, I put you in the center of the world so that you, a free and courageous master, choose for yourself the image that you wish." This life-creating pathos was updated by the romantics. For them, creativity, the creative freedom of a Renaissance man will become the main value, and artists and creators will become the cultural heroes of the era.
For the romantic consciousness, art is valuable: only art can transform the world. Not accepting reality as it is, romantics create their own myth. Romantics replace things with symbols. Their world is a system of symbols. So the rose is no longer a flower, but a symbol of Aphrodite.
Romantic consciousness above all appreciates the uniqueness and exclusivity of the human personality. During this period, portraiture, seeking to convey the thoughts and feelings of a person, comes to the fore.
The romantic ideal is in conflict with everything finite. For romance, it is not the duration of life that is relevant, but the intensity of its experiences. In the mind of a romantic, there is always a conflict between nature and civilization. Nature is, above all, the realm of freedom. That is why the French landscape painters Delacroix, Géricault, Ingres and others are so fond of images of stormy, rebellious nature.
The second leading artistic system in the art of the 19th century was realism (critical realism). The most significant achievements of realism are in literature, primarily in prose (F. Stendhal, O. Balzac, P. Mérimée in France, C. Dickens, W. M. Thackeray in England), in painting (primarily the French artists O. Daumier , G. Courbet).
It is interesting that romanticism begins with the formation of a theory, the creation of a term to define the direction that has arisen, while realism, on the contrary, begins with artistic creativity. So, Stendhal considered himself a romantic, Balzac attributed his work to the eclectic trend, etc. The term realism appeared when the literary trend itself was already defined in world culture. This term appeared in 1856-1857, when in France Chanfleury published a collection of articles called "Realism", and his colleague L. E. E. Duranty, together with the critic A. Assez, published six issues of the magazine under the same name. At the same time, George Sand published the article "Realism" (1857), in which the opposition of the positions of romantics and realists was clearly indicated.
A huge role in the development of the new artistic method was played by the achievements of science of the 19th century, which emphasizes the cultural interconnections of various spheres of the spiritual life of Europeans. The main task of science in the 19th century was to guess the objective course of human history. The positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte and his followers, especially influential in the middle of the century, contained the idea that true knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences that do not need a general philosophy. The picture of the world, therefore, ceases to be universal, that is, positivism does not claim to have a general picture of the world.
If the romantics sought to show the dignity and selfhood of a person raised above the inert philistine environment and overshadowed by a genius, then realism, which replaced romanticism, set itself the task of finding a simple, ordinary person in a depraved crowd. In the manifesto of realistic art - Preface to the "human comedy" (1841) - O. de Balzac wrote: "A living being is a basis that receives its external form, or, more precisely, the distinguishing features of its form in the environment where it assigned to develop. Animal species are defined by these differences. The dissemination and protection of this system ... will be the eternal merit of Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire ... Having penetrated this system, even before the disputes that it aroused, I realized that in this respect society is like nature. Does not society create from man, according to the environment in which he acts, as many diverse species as there are in the animal world? The difference between a soldier, a worker, an official, a lawyer, an idler, a scientist, a statesman, a businessman, a sailor, a poet, a poor man, a priest, is as significant, although somewhat more difficult to grasp, as that which distinguishes a wolf, a lion, a donkey, a crow from each other. , shark, seal, sheep, etc. Therefore, there are and always will be species in human society, just as they exist in the animal kingdom.
The society of that time was shocked by the fact that instead of romantic genius personalities, ordinary merchants of goods, talent, etc. suddenly poured into literature in a flood. Reproofs and exposures are not an end in themselves for realists, but an opportunity to open and remove alien layers that distort the true human shape. The forerunners of the realists - the romantics - were able to grasp the general law of the opening era of mass education, accumulation and consumption: the law of environmental pressure on the individual, the threat of universal standardization. In accordance with this law, their extraordinary personality opposes the hostile mass, as a result of which this very personality is elevated above the crowd in a vain attempt to find refuge in the exalted realms of the spirit. Realists, on the other hand, place the personality in the midst of the environment and subject it to a comprehensive examination and analysis. Obsessed with analysis, they explore the interaction of personality with environment in the smallest detail. If the romantics embody the result, then the realists recreate the process; they are interested in how a person changes, obeying the standard, and how he manages to save himself in spite of it.
Realism, like the realists themselves, was often reproached for “slandering”, for concentrating on the prosaically unchanging aspects of being, for opening one ulcer after another, showing the existing disease of the century, but not curing it. Just as romantic abstractness disappointed in its time, so it has now disappointed realistic analyticity.
Romanticism is given another try. The artistic person again directs his gaze to the coming centuries. A stormy surge of neo-romantic currents completes the nineteenth century and opens the twentieth century. Symbolism, surrealism, expressionism, cubism and the subsequent ones that make up the essence of the concept of "modernism" are direct descendants of romanticism.
As a cultural epoch, the 20th century begins with the outbreak of the First World War. On August 1, 1914, everything in the world changed dramatically: all the values former world were destroyed overnight, human consciousness completely turned over. Man has long been familiar with the infinity of space, but earlier he thought it was more homogeneous, but now he has received ideas about “black holes”, about the so-called “fourth change”. All this led to the fact that in the 19th century the feeling of space as a kind of shelter was forever done away with. The so-called “post-Christian era” has come, i.e. the period when Christian values finally ceased to be a guide to action. The line between good and evil has blurred, and these categories have become interchangeable. The words of Friedrich Nietzsche, said in the 19th century: “God is dead!”, that is, faith in absolute values, in the highest authorities, has died, gained true reality in the 20th century.
The death of God marked the death of original truth. The human consciousness turned out to be subordinated to the idea of the relativity of everything that exists, now any truth is doubtful, since it does not match with the absolute truth, the personification of which was once God. Therefore, the 20th century is often called the era of relativism, where good is evil, the beautiful suddenly becomes ugly, and vice versa. The so-called "age of Aquarius" has begun. Aquarius becomes a symbol of the exit of the subconscious from the power of thinking (conscious processes), it is a symbol of instinctive desires and aspirations.
This ability of a person of the 20th century is characterized by the “Narcissus syndrome” (this definition was given by the French philosopher Louis Laval). For a person of such consciousness, the other ceases to be a subject, the whole world around him is considered as an object of claims, and only he himself turns out to be the only reality. And he, striving for self-knowledge, looks only in the mirror own desires and aspirations. As a result, a false self-image is born, since no one is able to understand himself without the other. The narcissistic character of the 20th century was most evident in relation to natural world: global environmental problems are a consequence of this syndrome.
Another hallmark Culture XX century Ortega y Gasset in his treatise "The Revolt of the Masses" (1930) called it a mass character. Culture focuses on mediocrity, because vulgarity has no individual content, while high culture is always personal, aristocratic.
The entire 20th century was marked by a search for form and language. This search expressed the art of the avant-garde. The avant-garde claimed to be a universal alteration of people's consciousness, without giving knowledge, without creating ready-made formulas. The term "avant-garde" was transferred from the sphere of politics to the sphere of art criticism, and the feeling of struggle for everything new, non-traditional is associated with it.
to characteristic and common features avant-garde, according to V. Bychkov, should include: 1) its experimental nature; 2) destructive pathos regarding traditional art and traditional values; 3) a sharp protest against everything that seemed to their creators and participants to be conservative, philistine, "bourgeois", "academic"; 4) in the visual arts and literature - a demonstrative rejection of the "direct" (realistic-naturalistic) image of visible reality that was established in the 19th century; 5) an unbridled desire to create a fundamentally new (primarily in the forms, techniques and means of artistic expression); 6) tendencies towards the synthesis of individual arts.
The significance of the avant-garde for the entire 20th century is very significant. Having shown the relativity of forms, means, methods and types of artistic and aesthetic consciousness, the avant-garde brought to its logical conclusion all the main types of new European arts, thereby demonstrating that they have become obsolete as actual cultural phenomena capable of expressing the spirit of the times. At the same time, the avant-garde artist could use the achievements of technology, science, mythology, and cultural traditions. The art of the avant-garde contributed to the emergence of new (technical) arts (photography, cinema, television, electronic music, etc.).
In the 20th century, the category of beauty is replaced by the category of expressiveness. Art as an event of the spirit turns into a performance (i.e. a performance, a show). If earlier art was focused on the spiritual worker, now it has become addressed to a person who is looking for entertainment. Postmodernism as a phenomenon of the post-Christian era became a bright sign of art at the end of the 20th century.
Postmodernism does not assert anything, since there is no absolute truth in the world. The art of postmodernism is a fragmentary art, because a fragment is built from different artistic images, different styles. This leads to the fact that the true creator (demiurge) is not the author of the text, but such a feature of modern culture as intertextuality.
Review questions
1 . How did the ideas of the Enlightenment influence the cultural life of Europe?
2. What is the romantic ideal? What are the values of romanticism?
3. Why is European realism called critical?
4. How did Friedrich Nietzsche's statement that God is dead influenced the further development of European culture?
5. What is the significance of avant-garde art for the artistic picture of the world in Europe?
Essay topics
1. Poetic creativity of ancient Greek lyricists.
2. The ideal of a person in the works of Phidias, Myron, Polykleitos (optional).
3. The history of women's and men's costume in Ancient Greece.
4. Features of the ancient culture of Ancient Rome.
5. Stylistic originality of ancient Roman architecture, painting, sculpture.
6. Game carnival culture of the late Middle Ages.
7. Reflection of the essence of human existence in the works of Rabelais, Petrarch, Boccaccio.
8. The poetry of Michelangelo.
9. Titans of the Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian (optional)
10. Features of the development of the culture of the Northern Renaissance
11. Baroque: system of artistic vision and style.
12. Classicism as a reflection of the principle of state and civil discipline.
13. Rococo aesthetics in the context of the Enlightenment
14. Confrontation of romanticism and realism.
15. The image of the twentieth century.
16. The birth of cinema as a result of the search for avant-garde art.
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