By means of what main measures did the agrarian reform of P.A. Stolypin?
What are the features of Russian parliamentarism at the beginning of the 20th century?
What questions were the most important in the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907?
A) agrarian, the introduction of popular representation;
B) the end of the Russo-Japanese war, a multi-party system;
C) the transfer of power to the Bolsheviks
A) equal, direct elections, representation of all segments of the population in the Duma;
B) State Duma a priority right was granted in solving important state issues;
C) the predominance of representatives of the ruling classes in the Duma, the limited powers of the Duma
A) the transformation of peasant allotments into the personal property of the owners, the separation of the prosperous part of the peasant bourgeoisie;
B) resettlement policy and land development in Siberia;
C) increasing the productivity of landlord farms by providing them with agricultural machinery and soft loans
5. The reason for the difficulties in carrying out the Stolypin agrarian reform:
A) the resistance of the patriarchal-minded part of the peasantry
B) mass peasant uprisings against the reformers
C) Lack of reform legislation
D) Termination of the reform after the assassination of P.A. Stolypin
6. In the program of the Socialist-Revolutionaries on the agrarian question, the idea was defended:
A) liquidation of the community B) creation of collective farms
C) nationalization D) socialization
7. Name the leaders of the liberal-monarchist bourgeoisie:
A) P.N. Milyukov, V.D. Nabokov, P.B. Struve, A.I. Shingarev;
B) A.I. Guchkov, A.I., Konovalov, M.V. Rodzianko;
C) B.D. Kamkov, A.F. Kerensky, A.L. Kollegaev, M.A. Spiridonova
A) grant the workers freedom of speech, assembly, strikes, and unions, but retain the property qualification in elections;
B) give the workers freedom of speech, assembly, strikes, unions, introduce an 8-hour working day;
C) to introduce an 8-hour working day on an impromptu basis, to establish workers' control over the production and distribution of products.
9. What is the main meaning of the June 3 coup d'état:
A) in securing an overwhelming majority in the Duma for the bourgeoisie and landowners by changing the electoral law;
B) in the desire of the government to resolve the contradictions between the local nobility and the bourgeoisie through a change of power;
C) the intention of the ruling circles to accuse the Social Democrats of a military conspiracy
10. The reason for Russia's participation in the first world war:
A) Russia's desire to confiscate German property in Russian Empire
B) the desire of Germany in Austria-Hungary to annex Ukraine
C) the coming to power in Serbia of the pro-Austrian government
D) Trade and economic disagreements with Germany
In the post-reform period, three directions in social movement conservatives, liberals and radicals. They had different political goals, organizational forms and methods of struggle, spiritual and moral and ethical positions.
Conservatives. The social basis of this trend was the reactionary nobility, clergy, petty bourgeoisie, merchants and a significant part of the peasantry.
Conservatism in the second half of the 19th century. remained within the ideological framework of the theory of "official nationality". Autocracy was still declared to be the most important pillar of the state, ensuring the greatness and glory of Russia. Orthodoxy was proclaimed the basis of the spiritual life of the people and actively planted. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people, which meant the absence of ground for social conflicts. In this, the conservatives saw the originality of the historical path of Russia.
In the domestic political field, conservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s, and in subsequent decades they sought to limit their results. In the economic sphere, they advocated the inviolability of private property, the preservation of landownership and the community.
In the social field, they insisted on strengthening the position of the nobility - the foundation of the state and maintaining the class division of society. In foreign policy, they developed the ideas of pan-Slavism - the unity of the Slavic peoples around Russia. In the spiritual sphere, representatives of the conservative intelligentsia defended the principles of a patriarchal way of life, religiosity, and unconditional submission to power. The main target for their criticism was the theory and practice of nihilists who denied traditional moral principles. (F. M. Dostoevsky in the novel "Demons" exposed the immorality of their activities.)
The ideologists of the conservatives were K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Tolstoy, M. N. Katkov. The spread of their ideas was facilitated by the bureaucracy, the church and the reactionary press. M. N. Katkov in the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" pushed the government's activities in a reactionary direction, formulated the main ideas of conservatism and shaped the public in this spirit.
The Conservatives were state guards. They had a negative attitude towards any mass social actions, advocating order, calmness and traditionalism.
liberals. The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landlords, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia (scientists, writers, journalists, doctors, etc.).
They advocated the idea of a common Western Europe ways of historical development of Russia.
In the domestic political field, the liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles, democratic freedoms and the continuation of reforms. They advocated the creation of an all-Russian elected body (Zemsky Sobor), the expansion of the rights and functions of local self-government bodies (zemstvos). The political ideal for them was a constitutional monarchy. Liberals advocated the preservation of a strong executive power, considering it a necessary factor of stability, called for measures to promote the formation of a rule of law state and civil society in Russia.
In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise, advocated the preservation of private property, lower redemption payments. The requirement to abolish class privileges, the recognition of the inviolability of the individual, her right to free spiritual development were the basis of their moral and ethical views.
The liberals stood for the evolutionary path of development, considering reforms to be the main method of social and political modernization of Russia. They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activity mainly consisted in submitting “addresses” to the name of the tsar - petitions with a proposal for a program of transformations. The most "left" liberals sometimes used conspiratorial meetings of their supporters.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists, zemstvo figures (K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, D. I. Shakhovskoy, F. I. Rodichev, P. A. Dolgorukov). Zemstvos, magazines (Russian Thought, Vestnik Evropy) and scientific societies were their organizational support. The liberals did not create a stable and institutionalized opposition to the government.
Features of Russian liberalism: its noble character due to the political weakness of the bourgeoisie and readiness for rapprochement with conservatives. They were united by the fear of a popular “rebellion” and the actions of radicals.
The social basis of conservatism in Russia was made up of the reactionary nobility, clergy, petty bourgeoisie, merchants and a significant part of the peasantry. In the post-reform period, conservative ideology continued to develop within the framework of the theory of "official nationality". The conservatives advocated the inviolability of the autocracy, the curtailment of reforms and the implementation of counter-reforms, the strengthening of the positions of the nobility, and landownership. They defended the principles of a patriarchal way of life, religiosity, unconditional submission to power. The ideologists of conservatism were: Chief Prosecutor of the Synod Pobedonostsev, Minister of the Interior Tolstoy, editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper Katkov. The spread of their ideas was facilitated by the bureaucratic apparatus, the church, and the reactionary press.
The social basis of the liberal ideology was made up of bourgeois landlords, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia. The liberals defended the idea of a common path of development of Russia with Western Europe. They advocated the introduction of constitutional principles, democratic freedoms, and the continuation of reforms. Their political ideal was a constitutional monarchy. The liberals were supporters of the evolutionary path of Russia's development, through reforms. They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Their main form of protest was addresses and petitions addressed to the tsar with a proposal for a reform program.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists, zemstvo figures (Chicherin, Kavelin, Rodichev, and others). Their organizational support was the zemstvos, scientific societies, the journals Vestnik Evropy and Russkoe bogatstvo. The liberals did not create a stable and institutionalized opposition to the autocracy. They, like the conservatives, were afraid of a popular revolt and the actions of the radicals.
Liberal Populism
Liberal Populists. This trend, while sharing the idea of the revolutionary populists about a special, non-capitalist path of development of Russia, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. The liberal populists did not play a prominent role in the social movement of the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. The liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants, demanded the abolition of the remnants of serfdom, the abolition of landownership, and the prevention of the "ulcers" of capitalism in Russia.
They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population (the theory of "small deeds") as the main direction of their activity. For this purpose, they used the printed organs (the magazine "Russian Wealth"), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N. K. Mikhailovsky, N. F. Danielson, V. P. Vorontsov.
Radicals in the 80-90s of the XIX century. During this period, radical changes took place in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main anti-government force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 1970s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The former remained committed to the idea of peasant socialism, the latter saw in the proletariat the main force of social progress.
Emancipation of Labor Group. Former active participants in the "Black Redistribution" G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, L. G. Deich and V. N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory, created by K. Marx and F. Engels in the middle of the 19th century, they were attracted by the idea of achieving socialism through the proletarian revolution.
In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of Marxism; struggle against autocracy; creation of a workers' party. They considered the most important condition for social progress in Russia to be a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the driving force of which would be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They regarded the peasantry as a reactionary force in society, as a political antipode to the proletariat.
Propaganda of Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp criticism of the populist theory about a special non-capitalist path of development of Russia. The Emancipation of Labor group operated abroad and was not associated with the labor movement that was emerging in Russia.
In Russia itself in 1883-1892. several Marxist circles were formed (D. I. Blagoeva, N. E. Fedoseeva, M. I. Brusneva, and others). They saw their task in studying Marxism and propagating it among workers, students and petty employees. However, they were cut off from the labor movement.
The ideological and theoretical activities of the Emancipation of Labor group abroad and the Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of a Russian political party of the working class.
The labor movement in the 70-90s. 19th century The birth of social democracy (80-90 years of the XIX century)
The labor movement in the 60-70s. As industry developed, the proletariat grew, replenished at the expense of ruined peasants and handicraftsmen, and in time - the children of workers. A detachment of cadre proletarians gradually formed. The working and living conditions of workers in Russia were incredibly difficult. Agrarian overpopulation and the presence of a reserve army of labor determined the cheapness of labor.
The length of the working day in 1860-1870 was 13-14 hours, in some industries up to 15-17 hours. Women's and children's labor (12-14 hours) was widely used, paid much lower. An 1882 government law limited, but did not prohibit, child labor. Earnings were arbitrarily set by the owners of enterprises. Fines took 25-40% of the fee. There was no insurance, no pensions. Workers paid for lodging (corners and beds) in overcrowded factory barracks and groceries, which they were forced to take from the factory shop.
Unbearable conditions and complete lack of rights pushed them to fight. In the 60s. unorganized and passive resistance prevailed (petitions to the administration, escapes). But the strike movement also began: from 1861 to 1869. 63 strikes took place in Russia. They took the form of a riot: the strikers broke equipment, beat administrators.
In the 70s. the struggle intensified: from 1870 to 1879. - 326 strikes. The strike at the Neva paper-spinning factory in St. Petersburg (1870) is especially famous. The refusal to raise wages led to a complete shutdown of the enterprise. The authorities sued the strikers, but the picture of exploitation was so terrible that the sentences were minimal: several days of arrest. There was also a major strike at the Krenholm factory in Narva in 1872 (6,000 strikers), which was suppressed by the troops.
The first workers' organizations. The first of these in Russia was the "South Russian Union of Workers" (organized in 1875 in Odessa by the revolutionary intellectual Zaslavsky). The charter of the "Union" took on some of the provisions of the documents of the 1st International, but was not free from populist views. The tasks of the "Union" included "propaganda of the ideas of emancipating workers from the yoke of capital" and "fighting the established economic and political order." The core of the organization consisted of 60 workers and about 200 sympathizers. In December 1875, the Soyuz was smashed by the police, and 15 of its members, including Zaslavsky, were put on trial.
In 1878, the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" arose in St. Petersburg - about 200 members and the same number of sympathizers. The leaders are Obnorsky and Khalturin. The illegal program "To the Russian Workers" put forward demands for a political struggle against the "existing political and economic system", the elimination of estates, the introduction of compulsory and free education, the limitation of working hours, the prohibition of child labor, and ensuring freedom of speech, the press, and assembly. "Northern Union" tried to publish an illegal newspaper (the first and only issue of "Working Dawn"). In 1879 it ceased to exist. Obnorsky was arrested, Khalturin joined the "Narodnaya Volya", which engaged in terror.
Labor movement in the 80s. intensified even more. From 1880 to 1884 there were 101 strikes (99 thousand workers), in 1885-1889. - 221 strikes (223 thousand workers). The centers of the movement are the Petersburg and Central industrial regions, but the workers of other regions, the national outskirts, have also joined.
The events at Morozov's factory in Orekhovo-Zuevo (January 1885) are widely known. There was a sophisticated system of fines, and the wages of workers in 1882-1884. dropped 5 times. When it was lowered again (by 25%), a strike began. After the defeat of the factory shop, the apartments of the administration, the strike became organized through the efforts of the leaders (Moiseenko, Volkov). Among the requirements, the state control over wages and conditions of employment was especially important. An armed massacre followed. The court acquitted 33 workers, since the facts of monstrous oppression were revealed.
The wide scope of the strike movement in Russia forced the government in the 80-90s. issue a number of laws regulating the working conditions of women and children, the collection of fines (to be used for the needs of workers), the payment of wages and dismissals; introduced factory inspection.
The Marxist trend has been formalized since the creation of G.V. Plekhanov of the "Emancipation of Labor" group (1883), which began to propagate and spread Marxism, to develop the program provisions of Russian social democracy. In the 80s - 90s. social-democratic circles and groups spring up in various cities of Russia, and the socialist-oriented intelligentsia are carried away by Marxist propositions. The spread of Marxism in Russia was the result of the process of modernization of the country, the assertion in the minds of the intellectual elite of society of the need to follow the Western European model of historical development.
The spread of Marxism reflected the process of Europeanization of Russian social thought. Among the supporters of Marxism during this period were representatives of the emerging social democracy, and future liberals - "legal Marxists", who later broke with social democracy. However, Marxism was perceived differently by them. If the former absolutized the revolutionary-political side of Marxism, adopted the idea of an inevitable socialist revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, then the latter were carried away by the philosophy of economic materialism, the reformist side of Marxism.
The establishment of militant Marxism in Russia, the beginning of which was laid by G.V. Plekhanov, continued V.I. Lenin. Having become a Marxist, recognizing the thesis of the working class as the main transforming force of society, V.I. Lenin played a huge role in the spread of Marxism, in its connection with the workers' movement, in the creation of the Russian Social Democracy. As a result of his purposeful work to rally disparate social democratic circles and groups, the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, the RSDLP, was created. This party saw its immediate goal in the overthrow of tsarism and the establishment of a democratic republic; the final one - in establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat and building a socialist society.
Story. General history. Grade 10. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich
§ 20 - 21. Revolutions and reforms in the XIX century
July Revolution of 1830 in France. The new revolution in France dealt a severe blow to the Holy Alliance. It seemed that the restoration of the royal Bourbon dynasty in 1815 was to eliminate the revolutionary threat forever. But this did not happen. Supporters of liberalism gained more and more influence in France. The revolution was also brought closer by the policy pursued by the Bourbons. Reactionary circles intensified significantly in 1824, after the death of King Louis XVIII and the accession to the throne of his brother Charles X (reigned 1824-1830). The policy of the new monarch, aimed at satisfying the interests of the "old" aristocracy, caused discontent among wide sections of French society. This led to the fact that the ideas of freedom found supporters among not only the republicans, but also the bourgeoisie and workers.
King of France Louis Philippe. Engraving.1 841
In July 1830, Charles X dissolved the legislative chamber and effectively abolished the French Constitution. These actions provoked the beginning of the revolution, called the July Revolution. As a result of a popular uprising, the Bourbons were overthrown, and a representative of the side branch of the royal house, Louis Philippe I of Orleans (ruled 1830 - 1848), was elevated to the throne. The new ruler was called the "king of the bankers", as he sought to act in the interests of finance capital.
Immediately after the revolution in France, a revolution broke out in Belgium and an uprising in Poland. The July Revolution opposed France to the Holy Alliance, exacerbating the crisis that had been developing within it for more than a year. In 1833 the Holy Alliance ceased to exist. Europe has entered a period of new revolutions.
Revolution in the middle of the 19th century in France. The industrial revolution unfolding in Europe led to the formation of a society in which there was no longer room for the old feudal aristocracy. The economic crisis that hit Europe in the middle of the century led to an increase in unemployment and a deterioration in the life of the broad masses of the people. The situation was aggravated by the crop failure of potatoes (the disease destroyed the crops of this crop), which was called "the bread of the poor." The absolutist regimes were unable to control the state of affairs not only in Europe as a whole, but also in their own countries.
The Revolution of 1830 became an intermediate act in the revolutionary drama. Almost the entire society was dissatisfied with the "kingdom of bankers" in France. Influential forces turned out to be in opposition to the July Monarchy: Bonapartists (supporters of Napoleon I's nephew Louis Bonaparte), legitimists (who sought to restore the Bourbon dynasty) and republicans openly opposed Louis Philippe.
France was shocked by two uprisings of weaver workers in Lyon (1831, 1834), which were brutally suppressed by the authorities. In February 1848 an uprising broke out in Paris. Barricades were erected on the streets, there were fierce skirmishes between the defenders of the monarchy and the rebels. King Louis Philippe lost power, and France was again proclaimed a republic.
The lower classes of French society were carried away by the idea of a "democratic and social republic", which was associated with prosperity and justice. One of the main demands of the workers who received representation in the Provisional Government was the right to work. The Republican government had to make concessions to the gun-wielding workers. It declared obligations to "guarantee the worker's existence through labor", "to ensure work for all citizens", and recognized the right to form workers' associations.
A real step towards making life easier for the working people was the organization of national workshops, where the unemployed could get a job. By the summer of 1848, more than 100 thousand people were already working in such workshops. To pay for their work, the government had to raise taxes, the burden of which fell on the shoulders of the peasantry. The demands of the workers, which were of a socialist nature, aroused opposition from the bourgeoisie, who also considered this revolution to be “their own”.
In the elections to the Constituent Assembly, held on the basis of universal suffrage for men, moderate republicans and monarchists won the majority. The deputies refused to pursue a policy of concessions to the workers, whose demands were increasingly left unanswered. National workshops, which had become too burdensome for the state, were abolished. This led to a new armed uprising of the workers of Paris. In June 1848, real battles broke out in the city with the use of artillery. The workers were completely defeated. They were opposed not only by the bourgeoisie, but also by other owners (including the peasantry).
Fear of unrest and a possible redistribution of property again raised the question of the need to establish a strong government in the country. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received the support of the peasantry and the bourgeoisie, claimed the role of pacifier of revolutionary passions. Having won the first presidential election, Louis Bonaparte in 1851 carried out a coup d'état, and in 1852 declared himself Emperor Napoleon III (reigned 1852 - 1870). The Second Empire was established in France.
This time is the period of rapid industrial development of France, when the bourgeoisie received significant privileges in the economic field. Parliament under the emperor did not play a significant role in the life of the country.
Napoleon III pursued an aggressive foreign policy, declaring himself a supporter of national movements, he at the same time supported the Pope, who prevented the national unification of Italy. In 1870, he began a war with Prussia, which ended in the complete defeat of France, the capture of the emperor and a new revolution, which finally established the republican system in the country.
French Emperor Napoleon III. Engraving. 19th century
Revolutionary and national liberation movement in Europe. The revolution of 1848 in France echoed in many European countries. The revolutionary movement for the first time acquired a pan-European character. In Italy, Germany, the countries of Central Europe, a movement for national liberation and association. A feature of the European revolutions of the mid-nineteenth century. there was an interweaving of political and national requirements, often closely related to each other: political freedom was not conceived without freedom for all peoples.
Each of the states covered by the revolution had its own historical features, and therefore, different ways of solving the problems facing them were needed.
In Germany, there was an acute issue of overcoming political fragmentation, which impeded the unity of German nation. Created by decision of the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation included 34 monarchies and 4 free cities. The largest states of the union were Prussia and Austria. The policy of the dynasties that ruled in these countries expressed the interests of the landowning aristocracy. IN agriculture The eastern lands of Germany were dominated by seigneurial relations. Industry was poorly developed, as customs barriers between states hampered the development of a nationwide market.
The revolution in Germany was led by liberals closely connected with industrial circles. They demanded the introduction of a constitution, the limitation of the power of monarchs, and the unification of the country. Revolutionary events began in the border states of southwestern Germany with France, and then spread to Prussia. The Prussian king was forced to agree to the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, which was tasked with drafting a constitution. The assembly did not last long and was dissolved, without fulfilling its functions. However, the constitution was still "bestowed" by the king. According to its provisions, significant power remained in the hands of the monarch. In parliamentary elections, the propertied classes were given priority. Democratic freedoms were limited.
Barricades in Berlin. Drawing.19th century
However, the revolution did not solve the problem of the unification of the country. The all-German parliament, convened in 1848 in Frankfurt am Main, adopted the constitution of a united Germany, but sharp contradictions between Prussia and Austria did not allow it to be put into effect. Germany continued to be fragmented, and the national idea of the Germans remained unrealized.
H. Angeli. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I
The revolution in the Austrian Empire also ended in failure. In 1848, the inhabitants of Vienna, who revolted, obtained from Emperor Ferdinand I (reigned 1835-1848) a promise to grant a constitution, as well as the resignation of the hated minister Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859). However, the army brutally suppressed the revolutionary uprising. The young Emperor Franz Joseph (reigned 1848-1916), who took the throne, renounced the promises made by his predecessor.
The Austrian Empire united under the rule of the Habsburg dynasty the most various peoples. A significant part of the population, along with the Austrians, were Hungarians and Slavic peoples (Czechs, Poles, Croats, Slovenes). The Habsburgs also owned lands inhabited by Italians (Lombardy and Venice). The peoples living on the territory of the "patchwork empire" were subjected to national oppression and did not have self-government. Therefore, if in Germany the task of the national movement was to unite the Germans into a single state, then the goal of the peoples who made up the majority of the population of the Austrian Empire was the creation of their own states.
In Hungary, the whole people rose up to fight for independence. The national army defeated the imperial troops, and in 1849 Hungary declared its independence. The Russian Emperor Nicholas I came to the aid of Franz Joseph, who, according to the traditions of the policy of the Holy Alliance, sent troops to save the Austrian monarchy. Austrian and Russian troops defeated the Hungarian rebel army. The revolution in Hungary was suppressed. One of the reasons for the failure of the Hungarians was their desire to recreate a great Hungary, which would include the lands of Croats, Slovaks and Romanians. But these peoples turned out to be on the side of the opponents of the revolution.
Lajos Koshut during the Hungarian revolution of 1848 calls for volunteers in the army. Drawing. 19th century
In Italy, during the era of the Napoleonic Wars and in subsequent years, the population of all regions began to realize that they belonged to a single nation. But the country remained divided into several large and a number of small states. In 1848, the desire for national unity, political freedom, as well as hatred for foreign rulers caused mass revolutionary uprisings in Lombardy, Venice, the Papal States and Sicily. The Pope was deprived of power, and a republic was proclaimed in Rome. In northern Italy, the liberation movement led to a war with Austria waged by the Italian states, the most significant of which was the Sardinian kingdom. Discord among the Italians was the cause of their defeat. As a result, the Austrians retained their possessions in Italy. In 1849 Austrian and French troops crushed the Roman Republic, the defense of which was led by the national hero of Italy Giuseppe Gariba ldi (1807 - 1882). In the same year, the Republic of Venice fell. The revolutionary movement in Italy was defeated.
The revolutionary forces did not fully achieve their goals in any country. Monarchies either held out or, as in France, were re-established. But the defeat of the revolutions did not mean the return of the old order. After 1848 Europe changed radically. In most states, constitutions were introduced that recognized the political rights of citizens, and seigneurial vestiges were eliminated. The bourgeoisie began to play an increasingly important role in politics and economics. Defending economic and political freedoms, she sought to establish stable regimes. The main opponent of the emerging bourgeois order was the working class, which experienced the negative social consequences of the industrial revolution.
reforms in the UK. The only major European state that escaped revolutionary upheavals was Great Britain. "Workshop of the world", the most industrialized country, it had a special tradition of political culture. The ruling circles of Britain preferred to solve social problems through compromise, without resorting to violence.
The industrial revolution brought to the fore new sections of society - the industrial bourgeoisie and proletariat thanks to which the country has achieved impressive success in the economy. However, political power still belonged to the big bourgeoisie and landowners, represented in parliament by the Tory party. In society, sentiments were spreading in support of a reform that would expand the electoral rights of residents of industrial areas.
Giuseppe Garibaldi. Engraving. 19th century
The first reform, according to which a small circle of people, who belonged mainly to the industrial bourgeoisie, received the right to vote, was carried out in 1832. The majority of the country's population was not affected by the changes, and the struggle for more radical changes continued. It was carried out peacefully - through rallies and petitions.
In 1838 the British workers laid out their demands in the National Charter. The document provided for the introduction of universal suffrage and the possibility for workers' representatives to engage in parliamentary activities. Grand rallies and demonstrations were held in support of the charter, signatures were collected. Charty movement ( English."charter", from gr. "paper"), which lasted until the 50s. XIX century, throughout its history did not go beyond the bounds of legality. The few radicals who advocated the use of violence to achieve their goals did not find support among the workers.
The British authorities rejected the claims of the Chartists. The main provisions of the National Charter were put into practice in the second half of the 19th century. Liberal and Conservative governments. As a result of the parliamentary reforms of 1867 and 1884. the circle of people who had the right to vote was significantly expanded. The real power in the country belonged to the popularly elected House of Commons - the lower house of Parliament - and the government formed by it. The House of Lords remained the stronghold of the aristocracy. In Great Britain, the rights of citizens to freedom of speech, press, assembly, etc. were established. However, the big bourgeoisie and landowning nobility continued to exert a significant influence on the policy pursued by the state.
Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament in London. Photo. 20th century.
In the second half of the XIX century. in Great Britain there were strong trade unions (trade unions), which played an important role not only in the economic, but also in the political life of the country. As a result of their activities, a number of laws were passed regulating labor Relations: the duration of the working day was legally limited, the right of workers to strike was recognized. The government took steps to develop education and healthcare. The reason for the success of the reforms lies in the traditions of civil society and law that have taken root in the British Isles.
But the behavior of the British in Ireland - the first British colony - did not correspond much to the principles of the rule of law, which they defended in their country. The desire of the Irish people for self-determination and the creation of a national state met with stubborn resistance from the authorities. The struggle of the Irish for independence was accompanied by armed clashes, leading to numerous casualties.
The fight against slavery in the USA. In the 19th century, the United States of America became one of the most dynamically developing countries in the world. The rapid industrial development of the capitalist North required a significant number of workers, so people from Europe came here who dreamed of finding an application for their strengths and talents. The successful economic development of the United States, the formation of an industrial society was hampered by the slavery that remained in the southern states. Here there were cotton plantations, on which black slaves worked, which constituted a significant part of the population of the South.
Despite the fact that the plantation economy was based on forced slave labor, from the end of the XVIII century. it was on the rise. This was the result of the industrial revolution in Europe. The rapid development of the English textile industry required more and more cotton, which India alone could no longer supply.
Growing and ginning cotton turned out to be a very profitable business, so slave farms began to be created in places where they did not exist before - on free lands West of the USA. Wealthy planters with numerous slaves (in the early 1860s there were about 4 million people in the United States) posed a real threat to farmers who were developing at the same time the fertile plains of the West. A conflict between the economic systems of the slave-owning South and the capitalist North was inevitable.
In the middle of the XIX century. slavery became major problem V political struggle in USA. Slavery was contrary to the basic principles of civil society and the rule of law, the equality of all people, laid down in the American Constitution. Possession of people caused moral condemnation of society.
For a long time in power in the United States were mainly representatives of the planters and circles of the big bourgeoisie close to them, whose interests were expressed by the Democratic Party. Opponents of slavery united in the Republican Party created in 1854. Its program did not contain a demand for an outright prohibition of slavery, but the Republicans advocated limiting its spread to new territories. The implementation of this requirement would have caused the inevitable collapse of the slave-owning farms, which needed a constant expansion of sown areas.
The Republican Party was sympathetic to the farmers and townspeople of the North. Thanks to their support, Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) was elected President of the United States in 1860. The slave owners of the South perceived this event as a threat to their interests. In early 1861, the southern states seceded from the federal American state and created the Confederate States of America (Confederation). These events led to civil war North and South (1861 - 1865).
Abraham Lincoln. Photo
The industrial North had a significant predominance in human resources, since only a third of the US population lived in the South (and about half of the Southerners were black slaves), and overwhelming economic superiority. However, the Confederate troops turned out to be better prepared for the conduct of hostilities (many officers of the American army were from the South), so the struggle proceeded with varying success and became protracted.
Capitulation of the commander of the armies of the South, General Robert E. Lee (April 1865). Drawing. 19th century
In 1862, the Homestead Act was adopted, according to which any American had the right to receive a free plot of land (160 acres) in a sparsely populated area for a farm. The implementation of this law led to the victory of the farming lifestyle in US agriculture and contributed to the settlement and development of the West. The following year, the president signed a proclamation abolishing slavery and drafting former slaves into the army of the North.
These actions provided the Lincoln government with the support of the general population and led to a turning point in the Civil War: in 1863, the northerners managed to inflict a serious defeat on the Confederate troops near Gettysburg, and in 1865, the troops of General Ulysses Grant (1822 - 1885 ) entered the capital of the southerners Richmond.
The bloodiest war in US history ended in the defeat of the slave owners. The socio-economic and political transformations in the South that followed after the war led to the strengthening of the democratic foundations of American society. Former Negro slaves received civil rights. Nevertheless, the black population of America continued to be poor and oppressed. The former slave-owning planters retained all the land and continued to influence political life southern states, so racial segregation and discrimination persisted here for a long time. Despite this, capitalist elements became predominant in the economy of the South, America received a powerful incentive for the development of an industrial society.
In most Western countries in the second half of the XIX century. the principles of constitutionalism and democracy began to take hold. This process was difficult, painful, often through violence and revolutions. Only in Great Britain managed to carry out reforms without upheavals.
Questions and tasks
1. What principles laid the foundation for the reorganization of Europe at the Congress of Vienna? Why did the European monarchs fail to achieve their goals?
2. What ideas were defended and what demands were put forward by the participants in European revolutions? To what extent have they been implemented?
3. Describe the political changes that took place in Europe in the second half of the 19th century.
4. Make a table and compare the results of the revolutions in France, Germany, the Austrian Empire and Italy.
5. Why did Britain manage to avoid revolutionary upheavals? Evaluate your classmates' answers.
6. Why, in your opinion, did the victory of the North in the American Civil War give an impetus to the industrial development of the country?
7. Representatives of the bourgeoisie during the revolution of 1848 in France made the following accusations against the workers:
“The provisional government tried to give you the right to work. But with all the fullness of his power, he managed only to send 120 or 130 thousand loafers to earthwork, which they did not even think of doing, but for which they were well paid. If they did not work, it was not because they considered these works almost useless, but because they claimed that the state was obliged to feed them for free. ... And the unfortunate peasant paid a tax of 45 centimes to pay for such excellent workers.
... The extreme poverty that strikes the eye in the cities, especially in large ones, is mainly caused by the wrong, immoral way of life of the workers. If the latter were guided by the spirit of prudence and sincere feelings for their family, they would rarely fall into need.
Do you think these accusations are fair? Justify your opinion.
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From the book India. History, culture, philosophy by Walpert Stanley1. What principles formed the basis for the reorganization of Europe at the Congress of Vienna? Why did the European monarchs fail to achieve their goals?
The Congress determined the new alignment of forces in Europe that had developed by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, designating for a long time the leading role of the victorious countries - Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain - in international relations. As a result of the congress, the Vienna system of international relations was formed, and the Holy Alliance of European States was created, which had the goal of ensuring the inviolability of European monarchies.
The monarchs failed to achieve their goals - to counteract the revolutions, because. countries adhered to different goals in foreign policy and based it on different ideological and political principles.
2. What ideas did the participants in European revolutions advocate and what demands did they put forward? To what extent have they been implemented?
Participants in European revolutions defended the ideas of enlightenment: a constitutional structure, limiting the power of the monarch, the transition from a monarchical form to a republican one, the separation of powers, the guarantee of civil rights and freedoms.
3. What political changes took place in Europe in the second half of the 19th century?
In the second half of the 19th century, Italy and Germany unified into united nation-states in Europe.
4. Compare the results of the revolutions in France, Germany, the Austrian Empire and Italy.
Revolutionary events in all European countries ended in vain, with the exception of France, where the monarchy was overthrown and a republic proclaimed. However, the failed revolutions were followed by reforms designed to partially solve those issues that were not resolved by the revolutionary way. So the Austrian Empire, torn apart by national contradictions, was transformed into a dual monarchy - Austria-Hungary.
5. Why did Britain manage to avoid revolutionary upheavals?
Great Britain avoided revolutionary upheaval by urging the government to reform and resolve urgent reforms in a timely manner, as happened with several reforms of the suffrage, which gradually expanded the electoral base, granting this right to all men by the end of the 19th century.
6. Why did the victory of the North in the American Civil War give an impetus to the industrial development of the country?
Because the North was an industrialized region, while the South was more plantation oriented. The victory of the North over the South allowed the northern industry to gain access to the agricultural resources of the south, which stimulated industrial development.
7. Representatives of the bourgeoisie during the revolution of 1848 in France made the following accusations against the workers: “The Provisional Government tried to give you the right to work. But with all the fullness of his power, he managed only to send 120 or 130 thousand loafers to earthwork, which they did not even think of doing, but for which they were well paid. If they did not work, it was not because they considered these works almost useless, but because they claimed that the state was obliged to feed them for free. ... And the unfortunate peasant paid a tax of 45 centimes to pay for such excellent workers. ... The extreme poverty that strikes the eye in cities, especially in large ones, is caused mainly by the wrong, immoral way of life of the workers. If the latter were guided by the spirit of prudence and sincere feelings for their family, they would rarely fall into need.
Do you think these accusations are fair? Justify your opinion.
Yes, these accusations were partly fair, because. the unemployed saw in the organization of work only a way to get money from the state, but at the same time they did not want to be responsible for their work, they tried to evade work. On the other hand, these accusations are not entirely fair, because. while providing work, the state did not care about the spiritual enlightenment of the workers, assuming. That a responsible attitude to work arises by itself.
