You rarely meet a person who has not looked into the dictionary at least once in his life. With their help, we not only learn the meaning of certain words, select synonyms or antonyms, but also learn a lot of new things.
Let's talk about what dictionaries are, what is their classification and remember the main "linguistic reference books" of the Russian language.
Dictionary Science
Lexicography is one of the branches of linguistics that deals with the problems of studying and compiling dictionaries. It is she who is engaged in the classification, puts forward requirements for the design of articles and their content.
Scholars who compile dictionaries call themselves lexicographers. It is important to note that dictionaries do not have authors, only compilers. This is due to the fact that they are compiled using special cards, on which the meanings of words and their forms are fixed. In this case, the compiler can use both cards collected by him personally, and cards collected by a whole staff of linguists.
Classification of modern dictionaries
All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and philological, or linguistic.
Encyclopedic dictionaries provide information about various events. A striking example of such a dictionary is BES - the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. The encyclopedia includes
What are linguistic dictionaries? This group of dictionaries deals directly with words and their interpretation. They are also divided into bilingual and monolingual.
Bilingual dictionaries contain the language and their foreign language equivalent.
Monolingual dictionaries are divided into groups depending on their purpose.
The most used types of dictionaries
What are the types of dictionaries? Among the monolingual dictionaries, the following should be distinguished:
Famous dictionaries of the Russian language
Let's now discuss what are the dictionaries of the Russian language.
- The most famous is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, compiled by the famous scientist V. I. Dahl. This guide contains about 200 thousand words. Despite the fact that it is already more than a century old, it is read one of the most complete and used in our time.
- The second no less important "Explanatory Dictionary", compiled by another well-known linguist S.I. Ozhegov.
- The Orthoepic Dictionary was published by two different linguists - R. I. Avanesov and I. L. Reznichenko. Both dictionaries are impressive and will be useful not only for schoolchildren and students.
- We also note the "Dictionary of Synonyms" by Z. E. Aleksandrova and the "Dictionary of Antonyms" edited by L. A. Vvedenskaya.
What other dictionaries are there? You can find out the history of many words familiar to us by referring to the work of N. M. Shansky “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, and A. I. Molotkov’s “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” will help you get acquainted with phraseological units and their meaning.
It is also worth noting the Dictionary of the Difficulties of the Russian Language, edited by the famous Russian philologist, author of many monographs and a collection of rules of the Russian language, D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova.
The structure of a dictionary entry
In conclusion, I would like to add a few words about the structure of the dictionary entry.
Any dictionary entry begins with a heading word, which is often written in capital letters and highlighted in bold.
We note right away that the words used in dictionaries are always spelled correctly, therefore, if you doubt the correct spelling of a word, it is not necessary to refer to a spelling dictionary. It is enough to open any available at your fingertips.
Most dictionaries also indicate the correct stress. Almost all Russian dictionaries will contain this information. What other notes are there?
After the headword comes information about what part of speech it belongs to. Then its meaning is described or there is a list of synonyms, antonyms - it all depends on the type of dictionary. The dictionary entry ends with examples of use - quotes from books, magazines. If given word has features in use, this information is also indicated at the end of the article.
conclusions
We have sorted out what lexicography is, what dictionaries are and their meaning, listed the main types, and also provided a list of the most useful for any educated person.
Remember, if you experience difficulties in writing or pronouncing a word, you cannot choose the most successful one, you just need to open one of the books we have listed.
The very first, main, and necessary dictionary is, of course, Dahl's dictionary. This should be in every home. The dictionary comes in handy all the time, it's just fun to read. And if there are schoolchildren in the family, the acquisition is necessary and very important.
At the prompt of friends, it is best to choose the original version, not the modern spelling. In the source - the letters yati, era, etc. - without them, a significant part of the meaning is lost.
If you look at catalogs with Dahl's books ( in the labyrinth , in Ozone) - you can see that many publications indicate - Modern spelling. This is a translation of the real Dahl into "Soviet-Russian" - truncated. Many publications do not have such a mark, most likely this is the original, but it is better to clarify.
The dictionary contains vocabulary that is actively used in various areas of the Russian language. The dictionary entry includes the interpretation of the word, examples of its use in speech, reveals its phraseological and word-formation possibilities; stress is indicated and, in difficult cases, pronunciation, stylistic characteristics are given. Dictionary entries, which in the previous edition were given in a special appendix, and new additions are distributed in the general text and highlighted with a special printing mark.
The dictionary is intended for the widest range of readers.
27th edition, revised.
Lev Skvortsov: Big Explanatory Dictionary of Correct Russian Speech
This dictionary is the most complete and authoritative reference book on the culture of Russian speech. It is made in the genre of a normative and stylistic manual and includes difficult cases, variants and fluctuations of the literary norm in the field of pronunciation, stress, word formation, grammar, use of words and phraseological expressions.
The author of the book is a well-known Russian linguist, professor Lev Ivanovich Skvortsov. He is the author of more than 400 scientific, popular science and literary and artistic publications, including more than 20 books and dictionaries.
The publication contains over 180 thousand words and phrases and is the most complete of the modern one-volume explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. It includes all the words and phraseological units that are now widely used in the literary language and colloquial speech.
All dictionary entries are provided with interpretations of meanings, literary examples of use, characteristics of the structure of polysemantic words, information on word compatibility, grammatical, accentological, orthoepic and etymological characteristics, many articles are accompanied by a description of all phraseological expressions, one way or another connected with this word.
The first proper explanatory dictionary was published in 1789-1794. the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", containing 43257 words, taken by the compilers from contemporary secular and spiritual books, as well as from the monuments of ancient Russian literature. In 1806-1822. The Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order, was published, which is the second edition of the previous dictionary, from which it differed in the location of the material and its significant enrichment (it already contains 51,338 words). The third edition of the dictionary was the four-volume Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language, published in 1847, which already contained 114,749 words (republished in 1867).
A significant event in the history of Russian lexicography was the creation in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl, periodically reprinted up to the present.
Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, including in it the vocabulary of common, dialectal, bookish, Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language. His dictionary with 200,000 words and 30,000 proverbs and sayings is a treasure trove of well-aimed folk words. The weak side of Dahl's activity is the desire to prove the uselessness of most of the words that are foreign in origin, an attempt to introduce non-existent words that he himself composed as their equivalents, a tendentious explanation of the meanings of many words, especially socio-political terms, a mixture of linguistic and encyclopedic principles of interpretation of words. It should also be noted that there are no clear definitions of words in the dictionary (instead, synonyms are given, which are not always accurate), the absence of stylistic marks and examples-illustrations from fiction, the nested principle of presenting words, which makes it difficult to use the dictionary, and the excessive abundance of dialect vocabulary.
In 1895, the first volume of a new academic dictionary was published, edited by Ya.K. Grotto, containing 21648 words. This volume contains a rich illustrative material from the works of writers, a well-thought-out system of grammatical and stylistic marks is given. After the death of Grot (in 1893), A.A. Shakhmatov (until 1920), who abandoned the principle of dictionary normativity, stylistic marks and evaluative indications. Under his editorship, the second volume of the dictionary was published, and further editions (the dictionary was published until 1929) were carried out according to his plan.
In 1935-1940. a four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, edited by D.N. Ushakov. In this dictionary, numbering 85289 words, many issues of language normalization, word usage ordering, shaping and pronunciation were correctly resolved. Dictionary built on vocabulary works of art, journalism, scientific works, the words of the Soviet era are widely represented in it. The meanings of words are given with the possible completeness and accuracy, dialectisms and highly specialized terms are included in the dictionary in a limited number. Despite some shortcomings (in some cases, the definition of meaning is not entirely accurate, the vocabulary and phraseology are incomplete, the lack of motivation for individual stylistic marks, sometimes the fuzzy distinction between polysemy and homonymy, the inclusion of some obsolete words), D.N. Ushakov is a very useful reference book. In 1947-1949. the dictionary has been revised.
In 1949, the one-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov, which later went through more than 20 editions. Since 1992, the dictionary, significantly expanded, has been published under two surnames - S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova; 4th edition 1998 contains 80,000 words and phrases. The dictionary has a well-represented socio-political vocabulary, gives the exact meanings of words and expressions, observes the principle of normativity in the selection of vocabulary, word usage, shaping, pronunciation, and presentation of stylistic marks.
In 1957-1961. A four-volume academic Dictionary of the Russian Language was published, containing 82,159 words, covering the common vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian literary language from Pushkin to the present day. The dictionary is normative, contains a diverse system of stylistic marks, rich illustrative material (3rd ed. M., 1985).
Much richer in vocabulary (about 120,000 words), in terms of coverage of various layers of vocabulary, the academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (1950-1965). The meanings of words and the features of their use are illustrated in it with examples from the artistic, scientific and socio-political literature of the 19th-20th centuries. The grammatical characteristics of words are given, the features of their word formation, pronunciation and spelling are noted, normative stylistic marks are given, etymological references are given, etc. The combination of the principles of explanatory and historical dictionaries makes it a very valuable reference tool. Re-edition in progress.
In 1981, the School Dictionary of the Russian Language was published by M.S. Lapatukhina, E.V. Skorlupovskaya, G.P. Snetova. The dictionary contains information about the meaning of words, their spelling, pronunciation, morphemic composition, morphological features.
The type of explanatory dictionaries includes dictionaries in which the interpretation of words that are not included in previously published dictionaries is given. Such a reference book "New Words and Meanings" was published in 1971 under the editorship of N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin. The dictionary contains about 3,500 new words and expressions that have appeared in active use in periodicals and fiction mainly during the 1950s and 1960s. A new edition of the dictionary, built on the materials of letters and literature of the 70s, was published in 1984.
In the 80s, the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences published a series of dictionaries - “New in Russian vocabulary. Dictionary Materials / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova. Dictionaries provided information about new words, meanings of words registered from press materials and periodicals.
What will we do with the received material:
If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
| tweet |
All topics in this section:
From the publisher
This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in educational process across a wide range of humanities
The concept of vocabulary and lexical system
Vocabulary is the whole set of words of the language, its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - dictionary + logos - teaching). Differ vocabulary
The lexical meaning of the word. Its main types
The word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it. The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e. historically anchored in
The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of the language
The word as the basic unit of language is studied in various sections of linguistics. So, from the phonetic point of view, the sound shell is considered, those vowels and consonants are distinguished, which
Polysemy of a word
Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sma - sign), is the property of words
Lexical homonyms, their types and role in the language
Homonyms (gr. homos - the same + onima - name) are words that are different in meaning, but
Lexical synonyms, their types and role in the language
Synonymy is one of the brightest manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in their emerging associations and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous relations. This sign is not
Lexical antonyms, their types and role in the language
The presence in the language of stable systemic relations is evidenced by the correlative opposition of words according to the general, most essential for their meaning. semantic feature. Such words against
The original vocabulary of the Russian language
On a chronological basis, the following groups of native Russian words are distinguished, united by their origin, or genesis (gr. genesis - origin): Indo-European, Common Slavic, Eastern
Borrowed words in Russian
Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, trade, military, political relations with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of using
Borrowings from related Slavic languages
Of related language borrowings, a significant group of words of Old Slavonic origin stands out in particular. However, a significant role in the enrichment of the Russian language was also played by the words that came
Borrowings from non-Slavic languages
Along with the words of the Slavic languages, non-Slavic borrowings, for example, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European, entered the Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development.
Mastering loanwords
Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed subject, phenomenon or concept), many foreign-language
Russian words in the languages of the world
Russian words have been included in different languages of the world since ancient times. Most of them entered the languages of the peoples inhabiting our country. Russian words were actively mastered by the neighboring peoples of Northern Europe
Dialect vocabulary
In the Russian lexical system, groups of words are distinguished, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial fixation. Such groups are called dialects. At its core, it is
Vocabulary professional and terminological
In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activity, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.
Vocabulary of socially restricted use
Differ from dialectal and professional vocabulary special words, by which certain social groups of people, according to the conditions of their social position, the specifics of the environment, designate
Vocabulary interstyle and functionally fixed, stylistically neutral and expressively colored
The performance of one of the main functions of the language - communication, message or influence - involves the choice of various means from the lexical system. This is due to the functional and stylistic stratification of Russian
The concept of passive and active vocabulary
The dictionary of the Russian language in the process of its historical development is constantly changing and improving. Changes in the vocabulary are directly related to the production activities of people
obsolete words
one group obsolete words make up those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that denoted: boyar, veche, archer, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city
Neologisms
New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). Arising along with a new object, thing
The concept of phraseology and phraseological turnover
In Russian (as in a number of other languages) words are combined with each other, forming phrases. Some of them are free, others are not. Compare, for example, the use of the phrase up d
The concept of phraseological meaning. Single-valued and multi-valued turns. Synonymy and antonymy of phraseological units
Phraseological turnover, as mentioned earlier, primarily distinguishes from a free phrase the generalization of the meaning of the entire turnover as a whole. This is what makes it possible to single out a special type of value.
Types of phraseological units according to motivation of meaning and semantic unity
The criterion for distinguishing types of indecomposable combinations is primarily the degree of fusion of individual words in them. The stability and indecomposability of the elements of phraseological turnover is considered as a right
Phraseological unions
Phraseological fusions are such lexically indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them. For example, the meaning of revolutions is to beat the buckets -
Phraseological units
Phraseological units are such lexically indivisible turns, general meaning which is to some extent motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up this turnover. For example, common
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological combinations are called such stable turns, the general meaning of which completely depends on the meaning of the constituent words. The words in the phraseological combination retain their relative
Phraseological turns
The so-called phraseologized turns (or expressions), which do not have all the distinguishing features of phraseological units, but only h
Structural and grammatical composition of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
In terms of its structure and grammatical composition, the phraseology of the modern Russian language is
Lexical and grammatical characteristics of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
According to the grammatical composition, several most typical varieties are distinguished among phraseological units: a) turns, which are a combination of an adjective and a noun: air
Primordial phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The basis of Russian phraseology is primordial turns, i.e. common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), East Slavic (Old Russian) and actually Russian. TO
Phraseologisms and phraseological phrases borrowed from other languages
Word combinations by origin can also be borrowed from other languages. First of all, there are turns borrowed from the language of the Church Book, i.e. Russified Old Slavs
Colloquial phraseological units and phraseological phrases
In the colloquial style, the largest number of phraseological units are colloquial everyday turns and phraseologized turns. They are characterized by greater figurativeness, often have several
Book phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The sphere of use of phraseological turns of book speech is much narrower than neutral, interstyle phraseological units. This includes individual turns of official business speech: put under the cloth; slave
The emergence of new words and phrases. Changing their values. Loss of obsolete words and phrases
The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activities in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) from all levels of the language are considered
Dictionary types
The department of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study is called
Dialect dictionaries (regional)
In the middle of the XIX century. academic dialect dictionaries began to be published: “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852) and “Supplement to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1858). They collected d
Historical dictionaries
The main historical dictionary of the Russian language is "Materials for the Dictionary of the Old Russian Language" by Acad. I.I. Sreznevsky (the dictionary was published in 1893-1912 after the death of the author, reprinted in 1
Etymological dictionaries
The first Russian etymological dictionary was "The Korneslov of the Russian language, compared with all the main Slavic dialects and with twenty-four foreign languages» F.S. Shimkevich (1842). In with
Derivational dictionaries
The task of dictionaries of this type is to reveal the word-formation structure of words available in the language, to show the division of words into morphemes. Two editions (1961,1964) came out "School word-formation with
Reverse Dictionaries
When studying Russian word-formation (for example, when quantitatively characterizing word-forming elements, when determining the degree of productivity of certain suffixes, etc.), it is very useful
Abbreviations Dictionaries
The wide distribution in the modern Russian language of various kinds of compound words (including abbreviations), which is a kind of manifestation of the principle of "economy" in the language, has caused the need
Frequency Dictionaries
When studying the richest vocabulary of the Russian language, it is of no small interest to clarify the question of the degree of use of words in speech, since this creates an objective basis for rationalization.
Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms
The first Russian dictionaries of synonyms were “The Experience of the Russian Soslovnik” by D.I. Fonvizin (1783), which contained 32 synonymous rows (105 words in total) and P.R. Kalaidovich
Phraseological dictionaries
An attempt to collect and systematize the phraseology of the Russian language in a separate work found its expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections. In 1890 a collection was published
Dictionaries of foreign words
The first dictionary of foreign words was the handwritten Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet, compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. Throughout the XVIII century. published various dictionaries of foreign words and
Spelling dictionaries
The first serious attempt to codify Russian spelling was the work of Ya.K. Grotto "Rus
Orthoepic dictionaries
Over the past decades, along with work to streamline spelling, a lot of work has been done to streamline pronunciation. A summary of the most important rules for literary pronunciation is attached to Tolkovo
Grammar dictionaries. Correctness Dictionaries
The most complete dictionary containing grammatical information is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. word change".
Writers' language dictionaries. Dictionaries of epithets
The largest dictionary of the writers' language is Pushkin's Dictionary of Language in 4 volumes, containing over 21,000 words (1956-1961; addition to the dictionary - 1982). Dictionaries of one work are "Words
Phonetics
Phonetics is the science of speech sounds that are elements of the sound system of a language (Greek phon&
Phonetic means of the Russian language
The phonetic means of the Russian language with a delimiting function include sounds, stress (verbal and phrasal) and intonation, often acting together or in combination.
Phonetic units of the Russian language
From the side of rhythmic-intonation, our speech represents a speech flow, or a chain of sounds. This chain is divided into links, or phonetic units of speech: phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables and sounds.
The concept of a syllable
From the point of view of education, from the physiological side, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory push. From the point of view of sonority, from the side of ak
stress
In the speech flow, phrasal, clock and verbal stress is distinguished. Word stress is the emphasis during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. words
Sound laws in the field of consonants
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homoph
Long and double consonants
In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing [
Sound law in the field of vowels
Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish the position of unstressed vowels in p
Sound alternation
Due to the presence of strong and weak sounds in the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, there are positional alternations of sounds. Along with positional alternations, or phonetic, there are
The concept of phonetic transcription
Recording oral speech in full accordance with its sound cannot be carried out by ordinary spelling. When spelling, there is no complete correspondence between sounds and letters
Phonetic transcription of text
Another d "ên" / in "eu" t "Λ pΛzha r" b / raz "n" yes "las pfs" ie
The concept of a phoneme
Speech sounds, without having their own meaning, are a means for distinguishing words. The study of the distinctive ability of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called
Sound changes in the modern Russian literary language
The quality of the phonetic position (strong and weak positions) and the distinctive function of the phoneme associated with it (strong and weak phonemes) are determined by the nature of the positional changes inherent in phonetic
The concept of strong and weak phoneme
The degree of different function of phonemes is expressed in terms of a strong phoneme and a weak phoneme. Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the greatest number of sounds are distinguished.
The concept of the phonemic series
The change of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms a phonemic series. So, vowel phonemes, identical in place in the morpheme cos-, form a phonemic series<о> - <
The system of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian literary language
Composition of consonant phonemes. In position before vowels<а>, <о>, <у>, <и>consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiate as much as possible.
The concept of orthoepy
Orthoepy (Greek orthos - direct, correct and epos - speech) is a set of oral speech rules that establish a uniform literary pronunciation. Orthoepic norms cover pho
Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development
The orthoepy of the modern Russian literary language is a historically established system, which, along with new features, to a large extent preserves the old, traditional features, reflecting
Pronunciation of vowels in the first prestressed syllable
The literary pronunciation of unstressed vowels is based on the phonetic law of the modern Russian literary language - the reduction of vowels. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are reduced in length
Pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first
In the second and third prestressed syllables, the vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of reduction of vowels in these syllables practically does not differ. Sounds pronounced by
Pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables
The pronunciation of vowels in post-stressed syllables is basically similar to the pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in stressed syllables are not of high quality.
Pronunciation of vowels at the beginning of a word
1. In place of the letters a, o at the beginning of the word (if the syllable is not stressed), the sound [Λ] is pronounced. For example: agent, sedge, shell, founder - [Λgent], [Λjuice], [ΛbΛlochk], [Λs
Transition(s) to(s)
In the place of the letter and at the beginning of the word, when the pronunciation of this word merges with the previous one, which ends in a solid consonant, as well as in the place of the union and under certain conditions, the voice is pronounced
Pronunciation of unstressed vowel combinations
Combinations of unstressed vowels are formed during the continuous pronunciation of the functional word and the subsequent significant one, as well as at the junction of morphemes. Literary pronunciation does not allow the contraction of op.
Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream, the consonant sounds of the modern Russian literary language, paired in sonority-deafness, change in their quality depending on their position in the word. Differ
Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants, paired in hardness-softness, has a phonemic meaning, since in Russian hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. was - would
Pronunciation of consonant combinations
With regard to literary pronunciation, some combinations of consonants are distinguished, strictly defined in their composition. Such combinations are found at the morphological junctions of words (final agree
Silent consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound
Pronunciation of consonants marked with two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double agree
Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced consonants and sonorants is pronounced as a voiced consonant explosive: mountain, where, hail; before deaf consonants and at the end of the word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh"
Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative case singular. h. masculine adjectives -th, -th are pronounced according to the spelling: [kind
Features of the pronunciation of foreign words
Many words of foreign origin have been firmly mastered by the Russian literary language, have entered the national language and are pronounced in accordance with the existing orthoepic norms. less significant
The concept of graphics
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. A letter associated with the use of graphic signs (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing
Russian alphabet and letter names
Aa a Bb bae Vv ve Gg ge Dd de Her e yoyo zhzh zhe zz ze
Correlation between Russian phonetics and graphics
The composition of modern Russian graphics is an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was a literary language.
Features of Russian graphics
Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have developed historically and represent a specific graphic system. Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet in which for
The concept of spelling
As a result of a long development, Russian writing, gradually adapting to the linguistic system, has developed into a certain system that functions in the form of graphics and spelling, which are in close proximity.
Morphological character of Russian spelling
Modern Russian spelling conveys our speech by designating its sound side with letters, and in this sense our spelling is phonetic. However, in Russian writing, the speech unit, denoted by ed
Phonetic spellings
Along with the morphological principle, which occupies a leading position in Russian spelling, the so-called phonetic spellings are used, which represent deviations from the morphological principle.
Traditional and differentiating spellings
The violations of the morphological principle of spelling also include traditional and differentiating spellings. Traditional spellings, otherwise historical, are relics of the past, tr
Brief information about the history of Russian graphics and spelling
Modern Russian graphics represent a slightly modified graphics of the Old Slavonic language, the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Old Slavonic graphics were compiled in the 9th century. brothers in Bulgaria
Word composition
From the point of view of the morphological structure, the words of the Russian language are divided into words that have forms of inflection and those that do not have forms of inflection. The words of the first group are divided into two parts: the stem and
Productivity of word-forming and formative affixes
The affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and the affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative. Using affixes for
Non-derivative and derived bases
The words of the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition. The bases of all significant words are divided into two groups according to their morphological composition:
Semantic and phonetic weakening of the non-derivative stem
Word-formation processes in some cases weaken the non-derivative basis in the semantic and phonetic terms and even lead to the complete disappearance of the original basis, to the replacement of its other basis.
Production basis
A generating stem is not a particular kind of stem found in a language; There are only two such varieties - derivative and non-derivative. The term generating (or forming) the basis of decrees
Correlation between derivative and generating bases
The correlation of the derivative and generating stems is expressed primarily in the presence of a given derived stem and the alleged generating of common semantic-grammatical properties. For example
Changes in the morphological composition of the word
In modern Russian, the main organizing element of word formation is the basis (non-derivative and derivative). In the process of the historical development of the language, the way of images changed
Lexico-syntactic word formation
Lexico-syntactic word formation takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of use in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), t
Morphological word formation
The most productive in enriching the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, i.e. creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by means of
Subject of morphology
Morphology is one of the divisions of grammar. The term "grammar" is used in linguistics in a double sense: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of the language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure.
Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed. With the synthetic method
The interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word
As vocabulary and grammar, being different sides of the language, are connected with each other, so the lexical and grammatical meanings in a word are in interaction. This is manifested, for example, in
General characteristics of the parts of speech of the modern Russian language
Depending on the lexical meaning, on the nature of morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexico-grammatical categories, called h
Transitional phenomena in the field of parts of speech
In the process of language development, words from one lexico-grammatical category can move to another. If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basic
Composition of parts of speech
In modern Russian, parts of speech are independent and official. In a special group of words, modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words are distinguished. independent
The meaning of a noun, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity are called nouns. Nouns as part of speech can be names
Common nouns and proper nouns
Nouns can be common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree
Animate and inanimate nouns
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animated nouns include the names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. Living creatures. To the inanimate
Nouns associated with specific concepts
Nouns used to refer to objects of reality or persons are called concrete (table, wall, notebook, friend, sister, etc.). Grammatically specific nouns
Nouns with concrete real meaning
Among common nouns, a group of words stands out, which are used to refer to homogeneous substances that can be divided, measured (but not counted, i.e. uncountable
Nouns associated with abstract concepts
Nouns used to denote abstract concepts of quality, action and state are called abstract, or abstract (whiteness, beauty, mowing, shooting, development, enthusiasm
Nouns Meaning Singularity
Specific common nouns used to refer to persons or objects isolated from the mass of a substance or from among homogeneous ones are called singular or singulatives (lat.
Collective nouns
Nouns used to refer to a set of homogeneous persons or objects as some kind of indivisible whole, as a collective unity, are called collective (peasantry, uch
gender of nouns
The most characteristic morphological feature of a noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with minor exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine,
Hesitation in the gender of nouns
In determining the gender of some nouns (comparatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. So, individual nouns, used, as a rule, in the form of the masculine gender, sometimes
Gender of indeclinable nouns
According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often belong to the middle gender: communique, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce,
Number of nouns
Most nouns denote countable things and can be combined with cardinal numbers. Such nouns have correlative forms of the singular
Nouns with only singular forms
Nouns denoting objects that are not countable and are not combined with cardinal numbers do not have plural forms. This group includes: 1) creature names
Nouns with only plural forms
The following groups mainly belong to nouns that do not have a singular: 1) the names of paired or complex (compound) objects: sleigh, droshki, scissors, pincers, gates, glasses,
Case of nouns
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes in cases. Case is that grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of a noun.
Basic meanings of cases
The nominative case form is the original case form of the word. In this form, the noun is used for the name, name of a person, object, phenomenon. In this case there is always a subject
The role of prepositions in the expression of case meanings
Prepositions play a significant role in the expression of case meanings. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of cases. T
The main types of declension of nouns
Declension types of nouns differ in modern Russian only in case forms of the singular. In the plural, these differences are almost non-existent. In modern
Singular
Genitive. Along with the ending of the genitive case of the singular -а, -я, inanimate masculine nouns have the ending -у, -ю, which introduces the meaning of the case d
Plural
Nominative case 1. Masculine nouns usually end in -ы, -и (tables, rudders). However, in many words there is an ending -a, -ya (stressed): sides, eyes
Singular
1. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases, a small group of words in -iya has a special ending -i: (about) lightning, (about) Mary, (about) the army, on the river Biya (instead of the usual -e: (about) claw) .
Plural
1. In the genitive case, most of the words of the second declension have a zero ending: walls, herbs, drops; some nouns with stems in hissing and in l, n (softened) end in -ey:
Features of the third declension of nouns
1. The noun sazhen in the genitive plural, along with the form of sazhens, also has the form of sazhens. 2. In the instrumental case of the plural, along with the usual ending
Inflected nouns
Among the variously declinable nouns are ten nouns per -mya: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown, which are inclined in a special way. 1. During
Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns include those that do not change in cases. Most of the indeclinable nouns are foreign borrowings. In the group we do not decline
Stress in declension of nouns
All nouns in relation to stress can be divided into two main groups: 1) nouns with constant stress (the place of which in all cases remains unchanged); 2) im
Productive ways of forming nouns
Nouns are formed in modern Russian in different ways (see § 100-103). So, a significant number of new nouns appeared as a result of rethinking the
Suffixal, suffixal-prefixal and non-suffixal word formation
Among word-building suffixes, unproductive ones are distinguished, with the help of which new words are not currently formed (for example, the suffix -n is unproductive: pain-zn, life; suffix -uh: p
Formation of nouns by adding stems
The addition of stems is a type of morphological word formation when, as a result of the addition of two or more stems, a new word is formed. This method is widely used in modern Russian.
Transition of words of other parts of speech into nouns
The transition to the category of nouns of words of other parts of speech is called substantiation (from Latin substantivum - noun). Adjectives most often turn into nouns (mainly
Transition of nouns to other parts of speech
Nouns in the process of language development can move into other parts of speech. It is not uncommon to use nouns, such as brother, sister, deed, as pronouns. Wed: T
The meaning of the adjective, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives. The semantic basis of the adjective is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging
Ranks of adjectives by meaning
The sign of an object is denoted by an adjective or directly by the lexical meaning of its base (yellow, crimson, cheerful), or through the relation of the object to other objects (brick house,
Quality adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are called such adjectives that denote signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are direct
Relative adjectives
Relative adjectives are called such adjectives that denote a feature not directly, but through its relation to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They designate
The transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is mobile, since the semantic features that allow distinguishing
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives denote the belonging of an object to a certain person or (less often) to an animal: fathers, sisters, Lizin, Koshkin, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives
Short forms of adjectives
Only qualitative adjectives have a short form. Short adjectives differ from full adjectives in certain morphological features (they do not change by case, they have only the form of gender and number).
The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the original form
Ways of forming forms of comparative degree
In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming a comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee (-s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is friendlier and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you.
Ways of forming superlatives
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also synthetic and analytic. The synthetic form of the superlative degree is formed using the suffixes -eysh-, -a
Declension types of adjectives
The declension of adjectives, in comparison with the declension of nouns, is more unified. In the nominative case of the singular, adjectives have a gender difference: case endings
Ways of forming adjectives
Adjectives in modern Russian are formed in a lexical-syntactic way (advance, stunning, etc.) and with the help of a morphological-syntactic way (exquisite blue
Suffixal way of forming adjectives
The suffixal way of forming adjectives is the most productive in modern Russian. The derivational suffixes of qualitative and relative names are attached
Prefixed way of forming adjectives
The prefixal method of formation is less productive. The following productive prefixes are used: 1) not-, not without-: unsportsmanlike, not loud, unusual, notorious, not unsuccessful, etc .;
Prefix-suffix way of forming adjectives
The prefix-suffix method of forming adjectives in modern Russian is becoming more and more widespread. The following groups of productive consoles are distinguished and
Forming adjectives by adding stems
Compounding as a way of forming adjectives is used in modern Russian more and more often. This is a very productive way of forming words. Most words created
Transition of words from other parts of speech into adjectives
The use of different parts of speech as adjectives is called adjective (Latin adjectivum - adjective). A significant number of participles pass into the category of adjectives,
Transition of adjectives to other parts of speech
Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes pass into the category of nouns, i.e. able to substantiate. Moving into the class of nouns, the adjective
The meaning of numerals, their morphological features and syntactic functions
Numeral name - a category of words that serve as the names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of homogeneous objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles
Cardinal numbers
Quantitative numbers include numbers that denote in whole units an abstract number (ten divided by two) or a certain number of homogeneous objects (six books).
Morphological features of cardinal numbers
Morphological features of cardinal numbers are related to their lexical meaning. Quantitative numerals are not peculiar to the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of the number
Declension of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) is declined as a pronoun this (this, this). The numerals two, three, four have peculiar endings in the nominative and instrumental cases (two, three, four
Syntactic features of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) agrees with the noun in gender, number and case (cf.: one day, one day, one week, etc.). Numerals two, three, four in the nominative form
Collective numbers
Numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, etc. stand out in a special category of collective numerals. In modern Russian, collective numbers
Fractional numbers
Fractional numbers denote fractional quantities, i.e. the number of certain parts of the unit, and represent a combination of them. case of a quantitative numeral (number of parts - numerator of a fraction
Numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred are designations for quantities consisting of a whole and its half. The derivation of these words (from "half a second", "half a second", "half a second hundred") in the present
Indefinite-quantitative words
A group of words with the meaning of an indefinite amount (large or small) can also be conditionally attributed to indefinite-quantitative numerals: a lot, a little, a little, a lot, a lot and a few.
Ordinals
Ordinal numbers are words that indicate the order of homogeneous objects when they are counted (first ticket, third question, etc.). Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, appear in
The meaning of pronouns. Correlation of pronouns with other parts of speech
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, point to them. The specific lexical meaning of the pronoun is obtained only in the context. For example, the pronoun you is either
Pronoun ranks by meaning
By their meaning, as well as by their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories: 1. Personal pronouns, we (1 person); you, you (2 person); he, (she, it), they (3rd person) are
Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
Some pronouns under certain conditions may lose their demonstrative functions and acquire features of other parts of speech. So, the pronouns are mine, ours, myself, draw, that, this and others can
Using other parts of speech as pronouns
The use of different parts of speech as pronouns is called pronominalization (lat. pronomen - pronoun). The following words functionally pass into the category of pronouns: nouns
Meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions of the verb
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process. The word "process" in this usage has a broad meaning; this word means work
Conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb and their syntactic role
Changing the verb by moods, and inside moods by tenses (only in the indicative mood), by persons (in the indicative and partly in the imperative mood) and by numbers, as well as by gender
The indefinite form of the verb, its meaning, formation and syntactic use
The indefinite form (infinitive) is included in the system of verb forms, although it has a very peculiar structure. The semantically indefinite form is similar to the nominative case of the entity's name
Two verb stems
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. By education, verbs
From the history of the issue
The aspect category in the Russian language took shape relatively late (at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century), and already in the 17th century. it was reflected in the grammars of M. Smotrytsky and Y. Krizhanich. Category View
The concept of a species category
The aspect category is inherent in all forms of the verb. The verbs decided and decided denote the same action, but differ grammatically. The verb decided is perfective, it denotes an action that
Species formation
When forming forms of a verb, the original form, with a few exceptions, is a verb with the meaning of an imperfect aspect. Perfective verbs are usually formed from verbs n
Aspective pairs of the verb
When forming verbs of one type from another by means of prefixes, two results are possible:
Verbs that do not have paired forms of another form
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) non-prefixed verbs with the suffix -yva- (-iva-) with the meaning of multiplicity. In the modern literary language, such verbs are used
Two aspect verbs
Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfect and imperfect form are two-species, but in the conditions of the context they can act with a meaning characteristic of one form. These are verbs with suffixes -ova
Ways of verb action
The lexico-grammatical category of the verb interacts with the grammatical category of aspect, expressing the modes of verbal action, i.e. those values that are associated with the process of action (some
From the history of the issue
The category of voice has been and still is the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians differently understood the scope and grammatical content of the category hall
Verbs transitive and intransitive
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of such a distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. Transitive verbs are those with the meaning of action.
The concept of the category of pledge
According to the currently most common theory, the category of voice is associated with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive. The grammatical category of the voice is called the verbal cathe
Basic pledges and their formation
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) affix -sya attached to the verb
The concept of the category of inclination
The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of the statement, can be thought of by the speaker as a reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or a necessity. Dialect score
Verb moods
The indicative mood expresses an action that the speaker thinks is quite real, actually taking place in time (present, past and future): the Urals serve well, have served and will serve on
The concept of the category of time
The category of time in the traditional sense expresses the ratio of the tense of the verb to the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action expressed by the verb coincides with the moment p
Basic meanings and use of forms of time
Present tense. The forms of the present tense have the following varieties of meaning and use: a) the meaning of a specific action that is carried out at the moment of speech and has a limited value
Person category
The category of person indicates the subject of the action expressed by the verb: the speaker (first person), the speaker's interlocutor (second person), a person or object not participating in speech (third person). Forms 1st and
Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are those that express actions and states that occur on their own, without their producer (subject). With such verbs, the use of the subject is impossible: it is getting dark, dawn
Verb conjugation types
Changing verbs in the present and future simple tenses according to persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the narrow sense of the word), for conjugation in the broad sense, see § 173. Two types of conjugation - the first
Ways of forming verbs
In the formation of verbs, three morphological ways of word formation are productive to varying degrees: prefixal, suffixal and suffixal-prefixal. Prefix way
Participle as a form of mixed verb-nominal formation
A participle is a non-conjugated form of a verb that defines a subject like an adjective. It denotes a sign of an object, flowing in time, as an action that produces an object.
Participle forms and their formation
The participle in modern Russian has several varieties, which are determined by the grammatical meanings of the verb inherent in the participle: participles are real, reflexive and passive
Transition of participles into adjectives
The presence of signs in participles that are common with adjectives contributes to the transition of participles into adjectives. This transition, observed in previous periods of the history of the Russian language,
The gerund as a form of verb-adverbial formation
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb: Waves rush, thundering and sparkling (Tyutch.). The participles rattling and sparkling denote additional
The category of tense in adverbs
Participles, as invariable forms of the verb, are deprived of the opportunity to express morphologically temporary meanings. Participles are characterized only by the relative designation of time. The gerund is incompetent
Transition of gerunds into adverbs
The immutability of the gerund and its syntactic role (circumstance) are the basis on which the transition of gerunds into adverbs takes place. This transition is facilitated by the lack of
The meaning of the adverb, its morphological features and syntactic role
Adverbs include invariable words denoting a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other sign For example: He wanted to hug and kiss Streltsov, but his throat suddenly
Adverb ranks by meaning
Depending on their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and circumstantial adverbs. Definitive adverbs characterize an action or attribute in terms of its quality, quantity
Classes of adverbs by education
The correlation of adverbs with other parts of speech indicates their origin and method of formation. Adverbs are correlative with names, pronouns and verbs. Replenishing at the expense of others
Ways of forming adverbs
The formation of adverbs took place and is taking place in various ways. The most characteristic of them are the following: 1) separation of one of the nominal forms from the inflection system with simultaneous
Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles
The most productive group of adverbs formed from adjectives and participles. Without prefixes, adverbs are formed from quality adjectives with the help of suffixes -o, -e: bad, ho
Adverbs formed from nouns
Among the adverbs formed from nouns, non-prepositional formations and prepositional ones stand out. Of the non-prepositional formations, the most productive group of adverbs is the
Adverbs formed from nouns
Adverbs formed from numerals are relatively few in number. Adverbs are formed from quantitative numerals: 1) with the help of the suffix -zhdy: twice, thrice, four times; 2) way
Adverbs formed from pronouns
Among the adverbs of pronominal origin, there are, firstly, adverbs of ancient origin, which have lost living connections with pronominal words in the modern language: where, where, from where, from there, when
Adverbs derived from verbs
Adverbs of verbal formation represent a relatively small group. They occur, as a rule, from gerunds, which, turning into adverbs, lose their aspectual and temporal and voice
Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Along with the process of adverbialization (transition to the category of adverbs), which is very active and wide, the opposite process is carried out in the Russian language - the process of transition of adverbs to other lexico-grammars.
Semantic, morphological and syntactic features of impersonal predicative words
Impersonally predicative words, or the category of state, are significant unchangeable nominal and adverbial words that denote a state and are used in the function of a predicate impersonal sentence
Ranks of impersonal predicative words by meaning
The following groups of impersonal predicative words are distinguished by meaning: 1. Impersonal predicative words denoting the mental and physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment
Ranks of impersonal predicative words by education
Impersonally predicative words are by origin associated with adjectives, correlative adverbs, and partly nouns. This transition is carried out on the basis of a complex interweaving of St.
The question of impersonal-predicative words in grammatical literature
Impersonal predicative words, as words intermediate between nouns and verbs, began to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. When highlighting these words, the usual
Characteristic features of service words
Functional words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not subject names
Particles and their functions in speech
Particles are auxiliary words that express additional semantic shades of sentences, phrases and individual words. So, for example, does a particle relate to a whole sentence and give it a character?
Particle discharges by value
Particles by meaning are divided into three main groups: I. Particles expressing semantic shades of meanings. These particles include: a) indicative: here, out. Here is a bream,
Word-forming and formative particles
Word-forming particles form new words: 1) -something, -either, -something, some- serve to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs: something, somewhere, etc.; 2) neither forms negative pronouns
Morphological composition of prepositions
According to the morphological composition, non-derivative and derivative prepositions are distinguished. 1. Non-derivative, so-called primitive, prepositions cannot be correlated by education with any
Meanings of prepositions
The meanings of prepositions are very diverse and complex and are revealed only in combination with the case form. They can express: spatial relationships: relax in the Crimea and the Caucasus; temporal relationship: p
Conjunctions coordinating and subordinating
By syntactic functions, unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, as well as parts of compound sentences. P
Unions single, repeated, double
By use, unions are of three varieties: 1) single, used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the union but is typical in this respect (subordinating conjunctions
Modal words as a special category of words in Russian
Modal words are words by means of which the speaker evaluates his statement as a whole or its individual parts from the point of view of their relation to objective reality. For example: This, ver
Modal word ranks by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are distinguished: 1. Modal words expressing the logical assessment of the statement, the speaker’s confidence in the reality of the message: definitely, true, really
Correlation of modal words with other parts of speech
Modal words as a special lexical and grammatical category of words are correlated with various parts of speech, namely: a) with nouns: truth, fact, law. Wed: True eyes
Lexico-grammatical originality of modal words
Modal words differ from the significant ones, with which they are associated by origin, by the absence of a nominative function. Modal words are not the names of objects, features or processes, about
The concept of interjection
Interjections are words that directly express our feelings, experiences and wills, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech.
The role of interjections in the language
Syntactically, interjections also differ from significant parts of speech, because they, as a rule, are not members of a sentence, although intonationally they are usually associated with sentences to which they adjoin
Interjection ranks by meaning
Interjections in their lexical meaning are divided into two main categories: 1) interjections expressing various feelings (emotional interjections), and 2) interjections expressing will, order, etc.,
Groups of interjections according to the method of formation and origin
According to their formation, all interjections fall into two main groups: primary (primitive) and derivatives. 1. The first group includes primitive interjections, consisting of or from one
Verb interjections
In modern Russian, words are distinguished that, on the one hand, have the structure of interjections and their inherent expression, dynamism, and on the other hand, have verbal features (kind, tense). WITH
Onomatopoeic words
Words that, in their sound design, are a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, are called onomatopoeic. In their syntactic functions, they are close to interjections. However
Phrase and sentence as basic syntactic units
Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section dealing with
The main features of the proposal
Most types of sentence, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical proposition. In a judgment, something is affirmed or denied about something, and in this the so-called prejudice finds its expression.
Brief history
The problem of phrases has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was the doctrine of "word composition", i.e. about connecting words
Types of phrases according to their structure
According to the structure, phrases are divided into simple (two-term) and complex (polynomial). In simple phrases, one word spreads to others with different semantic meanings.
Types of phrases depending on the lexical and grammatical properties of the main word
Depending on which word is the main word in the phrase, the main lexical and grammatical types of phrases differ. The classification on this basis has the following scheme:
Syntactic relations between the components of phrases
Words included in phrases are in different semantic-syntactic relationships with each other. In general, these relationships can be reduced to the main ones: a) attributive (for example: tetra
Ways of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase and in a sentence
The most important means of expressing the relationship between the members of the phrase (and the members of the sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, a connection is made between all the modified words that act as dependencies.
Types of syntactic connection in a phrase and in a sentence
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal, independent of each other elements (members of the sentence
Sentences of real and unreal modality. Propositions affirmative and negative
The general meaning of objective modality conveyed in a sentence is differentiated as the meaning of temporal certainty and temporal indefiniteness. In the first case, the pre
Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences
Depending on the purpose of the statement, sentences are declarative, interrogative and incentive. Narrative sentences are sentences that contain a message about what
exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences are emotionally colored sentences, which are conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Emotional coloring can have different types of sentences:
Common and non-common suggestions
An uncommon sentence is a sentence consisting only of the main members - the subject and the predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away (L.); He is young, good (L.); Several years have passed (P
Two-part and one-part sentences
The sentence consists of the main members - the subject and the predicate, and the secondary ones, of which some belong to the subject and together with it form the composition of the subject, others - to the predicate and the image
Simple and compound sentences
A simple sentence has one or two grammatical compositions and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); In the afternoon she started
The main members of a two-part sentence
A two-part sentence is a sentence that has two grammatical compositions: the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate. The composition of the subject is the subject with or without words related to it.
Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic function
The main members of the sentence can be explained by the members, which are called secondary, since they are grammatically dependent on other members of the sentence. The term "minor members of the sentence
Expressing the subject with different parts of speech
The most common form of expressing the subject is the nominative case of a noun. The subject meaning of the noun and the independent nominative case are most appropriate
Expressing the Subject in Phrases
The role of the subject can be phrases that are integral in meaning, lexically or syntactically indecomposable. These include: 1. Composite geographical names (Arctic
Verbal predicate formally likened to the subject
In the role of the verbal predicate, the forms of the verb of any mood, tense and person act. For example: 1) a verb in the form of the indicative mood: The autumn wind brings sadness (N.); Pugachev m
Verbal predicate, formally dissimilar to the subject
The verbal predicate is expressed: 1) by the infinitive with the meaning of the energetic beginning of the action: Our brethren - to swear (Pomyal.); And new friends, well, hugging, well, kissing ... (Cr.); 2)
Complicated verbal predicate
Complicated forms of a simple verbal predicate include a combination of two verbs or a combination of a verb with different particles. This includes: 1. The combination of two verbs in the same form
Verbal predicate expressed by a phraseological phrase
Simple verbal predicates also include predicates expressed by phraseological combinations with varying degrees of cohesion of parts, since they have a single whole meaning (cf.
Compound verbal predicate with modal verb
This includes such verbs as want, wish, be able, be able, intend, try, try, refuse, hope, be afraid, etc. For example: I wanted to portray ordinary decent people in a new
Compound verbal predicate with predicative adjective
Along with modal verbs, predicative adjectives can be used as the first component of a compound verb predicate (special short adjectives used as a ska
Predicate expressed by adverb, participle, interjection and phraseological combination
1. The predicate can be expressed by an adverb with or without a bunch, for example: At your age, I was married (L.T.); How inappropriate was this memory (Ch.); After all, I am somewhat akin to her (Gr.). 2
Types of compound predicate
A complex (trinomial, polynomial) is a predicate consisting of three or more parts (the term “complex predicate” is used here not in the sense in which it is sometimes used, see § 259
Form of the verb predicate
The verbal predicate is coordinated with the subject, expressed personal pronoun, in person and number, and in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the subjunctive mood - in gender and number. Nap
Bundle shape
The copula usually correlates with the subject (in the past tense - in gender and number), for example: My whole life has been a guarantee of a faithful date with you (P.). If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, then with
Brief history
The question of secondary members of a sentence in the history of Russian grammar has different solutions. However, two main directions in the doctrine of secondary members of the proposal stand out:
Definitions Agreed and Inconsistent
According to the nature of the syntactic connection of the definition with the word being defined, all definitions are divided into agreed and inconsistent. Agreed definitions are expressed by those parts of speech that
Ways of Expressing Complements
Complements are usually expressed by nouns (with and without prepositions) in oblique cases, as well as by words used in the meaning of nouns (pronominal nouns,
Types of add-ons and their meanings
By virtue of their main meaning - designation of the object of action or state - additions usually refer to sentence members expressed by verbs or impersonal predicative words, i.e. tale
Additions in real and passive turns
A real is a turnover with a direct object with a predicate expressed by a transitive verb. The subject in actual circulation denotes the acting person or object, and the object denotes the person
Ways of Expressing Circumstances
Circumstances can be expressed by adverbs, gerunds, nouns in the instrumental case without a preposition, nouns in oblique cases with prepositions, infinitive, phraseological
Types of circumstances by value
Denoting the qualitative characteristics of an action, state or sign, as well as the conditions that accompany them (an indication of the cause, time, place, etc.), the circumstances are divided into the circumstances of the image
Syntactic and actual division of a sentence
A sentence as a unit of syntax has in its composition members of a sentence that occupy certain syntactic positions. This division of the sentence in terms of its syntactic structure is
Communicative, syntactic and stylistic meaning of word order
The order of words in a sentence - the arrangement of word forms in it - can perform the following functions: 1) communicative (it is a means of actual division of a sentence and, more broadly, of any actualization);
The place of the subject and predicate in a simple sentence
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually in front of the predicate (the latter is postpositive), for example: Marya Ivanovna went up the stairs with trepidation (P.); They entered the courtyard
The place of the complement in the sentence
The addition (verbal and adjectival) is usually postpositive, for example: I will send you ammunition and tobacco (A.N.T.); About a hundred workers were engaged in clearing warehouses and sites (Azh.). Pre
Place of definition in a sentence
The agreed definition is usually prepositive, for example: A deep gorge blackened to the left ... (Azh.); ... He took out his grief on your sides - the grief of his life (M. G.); It became terrifying in these silences
Place of circumstances in a sentence
The circumstances of the mode of action, expressed by adverbs in -o, -e, are usually prepositive, for example: One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shore, making a defiant noise, crawls to Rahim's head (M. G.). ABOUT
Definitely personal suggestions
Definitely-personal sentences are called, the main member of which is expressed in the form of the verb of the first or second person of the present and future tense. The verb in this case does not need a place
Indefinitely personal sentences
Indefinitely personal sentences are called such one-part sentences in which the main member is expressed by the verb in the form of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tenses or in fo
Generalized personal sentences
Generalized-personal are called one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by the verb of the 2nd person singular (present and future tense), and the action indicated by the verb in
impersonal proposals
One-part sentences are called impersonal sentences, the main member of which does not allow the designation of the subject of action in the form of the nominative case and names the process or state, regardless of the active
Infinitive sentences
The main member of a one-part sentence can be expressed by an infinitive that does not depend on any other word in the sentence, therefore, with it there can be neither an impersonal verb nor an impersonal
Nominative proposals
Nominative sentences are such one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a noun or a substantiated part of speech in the nominative case. The main term can be expressed
Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences
Nominative sentences may coincide in form with some syntactic constructions that are not actually them. These are constructions that either do not contain the meaning of being,
Types of sentence words
Sentence words are divided into several groups depending on their function in speech. Affirmative sentence words: - It smells of sulfur. Is it so necessary? - Yes (Ch.). - St
Types of incomplete sentences
Incomplete sentences are divided into contextual and situational. Contextual are incomplete sentences with unnamed members of the sentence that were mentioned in the context: in the next
Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech
Incomplete sentences are especially typical for dialogic speech, which is a combination of replicas or a unity of questions and answers. The peculiarity of dialogic sentences is determined by the fact that in the
Elliptic sentences (sentences with zero predicate)
Elliptic are self-used sentences of a special type, the specific structure of which is the absence of a verbal predicate, moreover, a predicate not mentioned in the context
The concept of homogeneous members
Homogeneous members of a sentence are called members of the same name, connected to each other by a coordinative connection and performing the same syntactic function in the sentence, i.e. combined are the same
Unions with homogeneous members
To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, the following categories of coordinating unions are used: 1. Connecting unions: and, yes (in the meaning of “and”), neither ... nor, etc. The union and can be single and n
Homogeneous definitions
Homogeneous definitions are each directly connected with the word being defined and are in the same relationship to it. Between themselves, homogeneous definitions are connected by coordinating unions and list
Heterogeneous definitions
Definitions are heterogeneous if the preceding definition does not refer directly to the noun being defined, but to a combination of the subsequent definition and the noun being defined.
The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects depends on a number of conditions: word order, the meaning of conjunctions, the lexical meaning of the subject or predicate, etc. 1. With subjects having the form m
Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The question of agreement in number in the presence of definitions in sentences with homogeneous members arises in two cases: 1) if one definition refers to several homogeneous defined
Prepositions with homogeneous members
Prepositions can be repeated in front of all homogeneous members, for example: Death roams the fields, along the ditches, along the heights of the mountains ... (Kr.). It is possible to omit the same prepositions, but different prepositions are not allowed.
Generalizing words with homogeneous members of a sentence
A generalizing word is usually a grammatical form of expression of a generic concept that unites subordinate concepts on the basis of real proximity, the grammatical form of expression of which is
General concepts
Separation is the semantic and intonation separation of minor members in order to give them some independence in the sentence. Separate members of the sentence contain the element add
Separate agreed definitions
1. As a rule, common definitions are isolated, expressed by a participle or an adjective with words dependent on them and standing after the noun being defined, for example: Cloud, hanging
Separate inconsistent definitions
1. Inconsistent definitions, expressed by indirect cases of nouns, are isolated if it is necessary to emphasize the meaning they express, for example: Headman, in boots and in an Armenian coat, with bu
Separate circumstances expressed by gerunds and participles
1. As a rule, adverbial phrases are separated, i.e. gerunds with explanatory words, acting as secondary predicates or circumstances with different meanings, for example: Pass
Separate circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs
Depending on the semantic load, weak syntactic connection with the verb-predicate, the degree of prevalence of the turnover, its intentional allocation, the circumstances expressed by it can be isolated.
Separation of revolutions with the value of inclusion, exclusion, substitution
Case forms of nouns with prepositions or prepositional combinations can be isolated: except, instead of, besides, except, excluding, over, etc., with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion, beyond
Separation of clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the sentence
Along with isolation in the proper sense of the word, i.e. the allocation of secondary members of the sentence, there is an intonation-semantic selection in the sentence of words that can be not only secondary
Introductory words and phrases
Introductory words are words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence (i.e., not related to them by the method of agreement, control or adjunction), which are not members of the sentence and express
introductory sentences
The meanings inherent in introductory words and phrases can be expressed in whole sentences that retain the intonational features of introductory constructions. For example: Buran, it seemed to me, is still with
Plug-in structures
Plug-in words, phrases and sentences are called, which introduce additional information, incidental remarks, clarifications, explanations, amendments, etc. into the main sentence. Similar to
The concept of circulation
An address is a word or a combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom the speech is addressed. The appeal distributes the offer, but is not a member of it (i.e. does not perform the function of
Ways of expressing appeal
The natural form of expression of address is a noun in the nominative case, which performs a nominative function. In the Old Russian language, the vocative case was used for this purpose
Brief history
In the works of A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradov emphasizes the special meaning of some unions - connecting (A.M. Peshkovsky speaks of composition and subordination after a divisive p
Essence of Attachment
Accession - as a kind of syntactic connection - differs from both composition and subordination. When composing, the elements of the utterance act as equal in syntactical terms.
Structural and grammatical types of connecting structures
In structural and grammatical terms, connecting constructions are not homogeneous. The following can join the main statement: 1) constructions with connecting unions and allied words
Allied connection structures
1. Attaching conjunctions and allied combinations are usually formed by combining coordinating and subordinating unions, as well as some particles and pronominal adverbs with unions and, a. It is these with
Unionless connection structures
Unionless connecting structures, used only after a long pause, are divided into four groups according to their functions: 1) connecting structures that act as members
The concept of a complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that has two or more predicative units in its composition, forming a single whole in a semantic, constructive and intonational sense. The difference between
Composition and submission in a complex sentence
By the way the parts are connected, allied and non-union complex sentences are distinguished. The former are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) compound sentences and 2) complex subordinate sentences.
Means of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Semantic and syntactic relations between parts of a complex sentence are expressed using the following means: a) conjunctions, b) relative words, c) intonation, d) order of parts. Unions unite
The structure of compound sentences
A complex sentence is called a compound sentence, the parts of which are interconnected by coordinating unions. Communication according to the method of composing gives the parts of a compound sentence a well-known
Connecting relationships
In compound sentences expressing connecting relations, unions serve as a means of connecting parts of a single whole, and, yes, neither (repeating), also, too (the last two with a joining from
adversarial relationship
Compound sentences with opposing conjunctions (a, but, yes, however, but, same, etc.) express relations of opposition or comparison, sometimes with various additional shades (not corresponding
Compound sentences expressing adjunctive relations
Some coordinating conjunctions are used in a compound sentence to express connecting relations, in which the content of the second part of the complex sentence is an additional
A brief history of the issue of a complex sentence
The question of a complex sentence in its history was practically reduced to the classification of subordinate clauses, or, as they were conditionally called, "subordinate clauses", which is closely connected before everything
Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependence of parts
The most common structural indicator of a complex sentence is the verbal and non-verbal dependence of the subordinate clause. This feature is substantiated as follows. Relationship of the subordinate h
Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence
1. The main syntactic means of communication in a complex sentence are special connecting elements, formal indicators of the interconnectedness of parts. These are subordinating conjunctions
Semantic-structural types of complex sentences
Structural indicators of a complex sentence are, as it was found out, firstly, the nature of the connection between the subordinate clause and the main one (property and non-preposition); secondly, grammatical means
Substantive attributive sentences
Substantive attributive sentences, depending on the function of the subordinate part, have two varieties. The function of the subordinate part depends on the extent to which the entity defined by it
Appropriative-defining sentences
Complicated sentences with a definitive clause relating to the pronoun (indicative or attributive) in the main are characterized by the following features: 1) the pronoun g
Explanatory clauses with allied subordination
Explanatory clauses are joined by unions that, as, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, so that, if, if, bye. Clauses with a union that contain a message about a real being
Explanatory clauses with relative subordination
As allied words that attach explanatory clauses, relative pronouns are used who, what, which, what, what, whose and pronominal adverbs where, where, where, when, how
The use of correlative words with explanatory clauses
Complicated sentences with an explanatory clause may have correlative words in the main. The function of these words is not the same. They can be used to enhance, highlight,
Compound sentences with a simultaneity relation
Relations of simultaneity are expressed in sentences with subordinate, attached conjunctions when, bye, how, for now (archaic), while (colloquial), while usually with verbs in the main and adjectives
Compound sentences with a relationship of diversity
The relation of different times is expressed by unions when, while, for the time being, as long as, after, since, as soon as, just, just, just, only, just a little, as, barely, only, before
Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts
Complex sentences can consist of such parts, the content of which is compared. Formally, such sentences have a subordinate clause, since they contain subordinating conjunctions (or union
Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts
One of the parts of a complex sentence can explain another, concretizing its meaning or conveying it in other words. The explanatory part is attached to the one explained with the help of unions, that is, and
Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses
Complex sentences can have several subordinate clauses. In complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, two types of relations between the combined parts are possible.
Complex sentences with several main clauses and one subordinate clause
In complex sentences, there can be two (or more) main parts that have one common subordinate clause. The main parts in this case are interconnected by coordinating unions (possibly
Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main types of non-union complex sentences: correlative with allied complex sentences and non-correlative with them. Sentences of the second type are found comparatively
Varieties of complex syntactic constructions
Depending on various combinations of types of connection between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with an essay and unionless connection
Structural features of complex syntactic integers
Complex syntactic integers can be of homogeneous and non-homogeneous composition. Between homogeneous sentences as part of complex syntactic wholes, a parallel connection is found, between heterogeneous
Paragraph and complex syntactic integer
A paragraph and a complex syntactic whole are units of different levels of division, since the bases of their organization are different (a paragraph does not have a special syntactic design, unlike a complex syntactic
Paragraph in dialogic and monologue text
Paragraph division pursues one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. However, parts of the text can be highlighted with different specific targets. Accordingly, the fu
The concept of direct and indirect speech
The statements of other persons included in the author's presentation form the so-called someone else's speech. Depending on the lexico-syntactic means and methods of transmitting someone else's speech, direct speech is distinguished
Direct speech
Direct speech is characterized by the following features: 1) accurately reproduces someone else's statement; 2) is accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is the establishment of the very fact of someone else's speech
Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's statement in the form of a subordinate clause. Compare: Direct speech Indirect speech Podosh
Improper direct speech
Someone else's speech can be transmitted in fiction by the technique of the so-called improperly direct speech. In this case, lexical and syntactic features are preserved to one degree or another.
Basics of Russian punctuation
Punctuation is a collection of punctuation rules, as well as the system of punctuation marks used in written speech. The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate
Basic Functions of Punctuation Marks
In the modern punctuation system of the Russian language, punctuation marks are functionally significant: they have generalized meanings assigned to them, fixing the patterns of their use. Functionality
Widespread and well-known is the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova; "Dictionary of the Russian language" in 4 volumes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (the so-called Small Academic). There is an Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (the so-called Big Academic Dictionary) and an Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D. N. Ushakova. There are also special school explanatory dictionaries.
A special place among the explanatory dictionaries is occupied by the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl, published in 1863-1866 and including 200 thousand words. So richly Russian vocabulary is not presented in any dictionary until today. The peculiarity of the dictionary is that it is non-normative: it includes not only the vocabulary of the literary language, but also dialect, vernacular, professional words. Interpretations of words are mainly given through synonymous rows, illustrations are mostly proverbs, sayings, riddles and other works of oral folk art.
In 1935-1940, the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language was published under the editorship of D. N. Ushakov in 4 volumes. This is a normative dictionary with a carefully designed labeling system. The term new is often found in it, since the dictionary recorded numerous language innovations of the 20-30s of the XX century. The arrangement of words is alphabetical, the interpretations are short and precise, the illustrations are taken mainly from fiction and journalistic literature. Phraseological units with the given word are given and interpreted at the end of the dictionary entries.
In 1949, S. I. Ozhegov's Dictionary of the Russian Language was published. In the first edition, 50,100 words were included. Since the dictionary is one-volume, interpretations of the meanings in it are short, the illustrative material is small in volume and consists of small sentences or sayings, mostly invented by the author. This is perhaps the most popular and accessible dictionary of the Russian language; by 1990 it had gone through 22 editions. In 1989, the 21st, substantially revised and supplemented, modernized reprint of the dictionary was made. All editions starting from the 9th, published in 1972, were prepared by the editor of the dictionary, N. Yu. Shvedova. Since 1992, the dictionary, significantly improved, has been published under the title "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" and under the authorship of S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova. In 2002, its 4th edition appeared.
Dictionary of the Russian language: in 4 volumes / Ed. A.P. Evgenieva
The dictionary was compiled by scientists of the Academy of Sciences, therefore it is called MAS (Small Academic Dictionary). Its 2nd edition appeared in 1981–1984.
This is a standard dictionary, its creators used the great experience of the compilers of the Ushakov dictionary and were guided by the same principles. In the "small academic" dictionary, the semantic characteristics of the word were carefully developed. At each word, an interpretation of its meanings is given, the main grammatical forms are given, the word is provided with normative stress, stylistic marks. Dictionary entries are illustrated with examples. For words of foreign origin, an etymological note is given. In 1981-1984 The second, revised and expanded, edition of the dictionary was published. All subsequent editions of the dictionary are stereotyped.
Dictionary of the modern Russian language: In 17 volumes.
It was called BAS (Big Academic Dictionary). The release of the first volume was scheduled for the end of 1941. But the Great Patriotic War and the Siege of Leningrad interrupted the preparation of the dictionary for almost five years. The first volume was published only in 1948. The planned dictionary had to be quite complete. He focused on the inclusion of the lexical richness of only the literary Russian language as a means of national communication. BAS covered the vocabulary of the Russian literary language from the end of the 18th century. to its current state with an emphasis on the development of the language, from the time of Pushkin to the time of the creation of the dictionary. According to its structure, BAS should have been a type of alphabetic-nested dictionary. Starting from the fourth volume, a number of changes were made to the dictionary that changed its appearance. The compilers abandoned the nested nature of the presentation of words and returned to the alphabetic one; the preface announced the strengthening of the normative-stylistic principle, the expansion of the network of stylistic marks.
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://allbest.ru
Russian language dictionaries
1. Classification of dictionaries
The following dictionaries can be considered the largest dictionaries of the Russian language in terms of the composition of the vocabulary:
· Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language (Dal) - approx. 200,000 words.
· Consolidated dictionary of modern Russian vocabulary - approx. 170,000 words.
· Russian spelling dictionary (Lopatin) -- approx. 200,000 words.
· Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language (Tikhonov) -- approx. 145,000 words.
· Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language (large academic dictionary) - approx. 120,000 words.
· Large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (Kuznetsov) - approx. 130,000 words.
· A modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, in 3 volumes (Efremov) - approx. 160,000 words.
Explanatory dictionaries
· 1596 “Lexis, in other words, the sayings are briefly collected and interpreted from the Slovenian language into simple Russian dialect” (Zizaniy) - 1061 words.
· 1627 "Lexicon of Slavic-Russian and interpretation of names" (Berynda) - approx. 7000 words.
· 1789-1794 Dictionary of the Russian Academy - 43,357 words.
· 1847 "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian languages, compiled by the second department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences" - 114,749 words.
· 1863-1866 Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language (Dal) - approx. 200,000 words.
· 1935-1940 "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" (Ushakov) - approx. 90,000 words.
· 1949 "Dictionary of the Russian language" (Ozhegov) - 50,000 words.
· Dictionaries of the Russian language are an important element in the study of vocabulary, phraseology and other elements of the Russian language.
· Dictionary, 1) vocabulary, vocabulary of a language, dialect, any social group, individual writer, etc. 2) a reference book containing collections of words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms, etc.) arranged according to a certain attribute, and giving information about their meanings, use, origin, translation into another language, etc. (linguistic dictionaries) or information about concepts, objects denoted by them, about figures in any field of science, culture, etc. (encyclopedic dictionaries).
· This meaning of the word DICTIONARY is given by the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by A.M. Prokhorov.
Most people have to deal with only a few "classic" types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which they turn to, wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and orthoepic, in which they inquire about how to write or pronounce a particular word correctly; and possibly etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographic tradition and are available to the Russian reader.
The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, if possible without using words that are less common and less understandable than the interpreted word itself. Usually, the more commonly used meanings are interpreted first, followed by the rarer ones. Because the exact meaning of a word often depends on the context, more detailed dictionaries provide examples of how words are used in different contexts.
In addition to interpretations and examples of usage, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are the accepted source of information about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, giving preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings where more than one is allowed. Dictionaries may also provide grammatical information, etymology of words (their origin and historical development), derivative forms in cases where they are unusual or difficult to form, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, place names, foreign words, and biographical entries. More often, however, these types of information are spread across different types of more specific dictionaries.
Since the fast pace of modern life is accompanied by constant changes in the language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently updated dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Linguistic dictionaries describe words - their meanings, usage patterns, structural properties, compatibility, correlation with lexical systems of other languages, etc.
Lexicographers take part in compiling encyclopedias, linguistic and regional studies and terminological dictionaries, but their main task is to create linguistic dictionaries.
Linguistic dictionaries are divided into several types according to their goals and methods of lexicographic description. A special place is occupied by explanatory dictionaries, whose task is to explain (interpret) the meanings of words and illustrate their use in speech. In society, explanatory dictionaries are perceived as a repository of the richness of the language and as the most important source of information about its functioning. In most developed countries of the world, the creation of explanatory dictionaries of national languages is considered as an essential part of the language policy of the state and is supported by special state programs.
2. Functions of dictionaries in Russian
According to the functions and purpose of creation, explanatory dictionaries are divided into descriptive and normative. Descriptive dictionaries are designed to fully describe the vocabulary of a particular area and record all the uses there. The assessment of the quality of a descriptive dictionary depends on how accurately the meanings of words in the presented material are described. A typical example of a descriptive dictionary is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I.Dal. The purpose of the creator of the dictionary was not to standardize the language, but to describe the diversity of Great Russian speech, including its dialectal forms and vernacular. Descriptive by definition are slang and jargon dictionaries, dialect dictionaries.
The purpose of the normative dictionary is to give a norm for the use of a word, excluding not only incorrect uses of words associated with an erroneous understanding of their meanings, but also those uses that do not correspond to the communicative situation.
The first normative dictionary of the Russian language of the 20th century. is a four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N. Ushakov, published from 1935 to 1940. The author's team of the dictionary, which included, in addition to Ushakov, such well-known scientists as V.V. Vinogradov (from the second volume), G.O. Vinokur , B.A. Larin, S.I. Ozhegov, B.V. Tomashevsky, saw his task in “an attempt to reflect the process of processing vocabulary material in the era of the proletarian revolution, which initiates a new stage in the life of the Russian language, and at the same time indicate the norms the use of words.
The tradition of preparing normative dictionaries was continued by the one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language by S.I. Ozhegov (first edition -1949; this dictionary was created on the basis of the dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov, subsequently updated many times and since 1992 published by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova).
By their nature, explanatory dictionaries are divided into general and particular. The explanatory dictionaries discussed earlier are general dictionaries. A typical example of a private explanatory dictionary is phraseological dictionaries, which are limited to stable combinations of words with varying degrees of idiomaticity. An important feature of phraseological dictionaries is the need to reflect the variation in the form of phraseological units.
Private explanatory dictionaries also include jargon and slang dictionaries, dialect dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words. The dictionary description of jargons and slangs of the Russian language is carried out for the most part not by professional linguists-lexicographers, but at best by native speakers of the corresponding sublanguages and, therefore, is far from the lexicographic quality standard. A typical drawback is the almost complete absence of a zone of examples for the use of slang units.
Among dialect dictionaries, general and regional ones are distinguished. Dictionaries of common dialect words include the vocabulary of many (or at least several) dialects and dialects. Dahl's dictionary is not only a general explanatory dictionary, but also performs the functions of a general dialect dictionary.
A dictionary of foreign words is a kind of explanatory dictionary that explains the meanings of words of foreign origin, which are perceived by native speakers as borrowings from other languages. In addition to the actual interpretation, dictionaries of this type include information about the language from which the word came and its foreign counterpart.
Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms, as well as dictionaries of new words can be considered special types of explanatory dictionaries. A dictionary of synonyms is such an explanatory dictionary, in one dictionary entry of which words that are close in meaning are placed, forming synonymous rows. Synonym dictionaries have been around for a long time. Interpreted in the dictionary of synonyms can be both the whole series as a whole, and each lexeme included in the series. According to this principle, a two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language was built, edited by A.P. Evgenyeva. Some dictionaries of synonyms do not contain interpretations at all. In this case, it is assumed that the meaning is illustrated by the synonymic series itself.
The dictionary entry of the antonym dictionary contains antonyms (words with opposite meanings) with a more or less detailed description of their meanings. Dictionaries of antonyms in the Russian lexicographic tradition appeared relatively recently.
In the dictionaries of homonyms, homonymous (i.e., coinciding in form, but different in meaning, for example, marriage1 "marriage" and marriage2 "defect") lexical units are presented with varying degrees of detail. The zone of interpretation for dictionaries of homonyms is obligatory, since it is impossible to illustrate the difference of homonyms without indicating the meaning - the use of a synonymic series to explain the meaning, as in dictionaries of synonyms, is significantly difficult here.
The dictionaries of paronyms include words that are similar in morphological composition and only slightly differ in the meaning of the word. For example, dress and put on, residential and residential, etc. Dictionaries of paronyms, as well as antonyms, appeared in the Russian lexicographic tradition relatively recently. To a certain extent, the functions of a dictionary of paronyms are also performed by Dahl's dictionary, whose articles combine single-root words.
A special area of vocabulary is formed by historical and etymological dictionaries. “Historical in the full sense of this term would be such a dictionary that would give the history of all words over a certain period of time, starting from one or another specific date or era, and not only the emergence of new words and new meanings would be indicated, but also their death , as well as their modification” (L.V. Shcherboy, article “The experience of the general theory of lexicography”).
Etymological dictionaries aim to explain the origin of words. Data on the history of words and their etymology is given in some major explanatory dictionaries.
Periodically published dictionaries of new words (neologisms) include words that have recently entered the language and new meanings of words, the understanding and use of which may cause difficulties.
3. Types of dictionaries used in Russian
Linguistic dictionaries collect and describe the lexical units of the language (words and phraseological units). In non-linguistic dictionaries, lexical units (in particular, terms, single-word and compound, and proper names) serve only as a starting point for communicating certain information about objects and phenomena of extra-linguistic reality. There are also intermediate varieties of dictionaries. In addition, any dictionary can be classified as either "general" or "special".
Examples of general linguistic dictionaries are ordinary explanatory and translation dictionaries, covering, with varying degrees of completeness, all the vocabulary that is in common use. A special linguistic dictionary develops one area of vocabulary, sometimes quite wide (for example, a phraseological dictionary, a dictionary of foreign words), sometimes quite narrow (for example, a dictionary of personal names given to newborns). A general non-linguistic dictionary is a general encyclopedia (for example, TSB - Great Soviet Encyclopedia). A special non-linguistic dictionary is a special (industry) encyclopedia (medical, legal, etc.) or a brief dictionary of a particular (usually narrower) field of knowledge, or a biographical dictionary of figures in a particular industry (writers, artists etc.), or one or another country (dictionary-reference type "Who is who").
An explanatory dictionary is called one whose main task is to interpret the meanings of words (and phraseological units) of any language by means of this language itself. Interpretation is given by a logical definition of the conceptual meaning (for example, to heat up - to heat up to a very high temperature; a record holder is an athlete who has set a record), through the selection of synonyms (intrusive - annoying, intrusive) or in the form of indicating a grammatical relationship to another word (covering - action according to the meaning of the verbs to cover and hide behind). In some explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are revealed, if necessary, with the help of drawings. Emotional, expressive and stylistic connotations are indicated by means of special labels (“disapproved”, “contempt”, “joking”, “ironic”, “bookish”, “colloquial”, etc.). Separate meanings, as needed and possible, are illustrated with examples - typical combinations in which the given word is involved (for example, the iron is hot, the atmosphere is hot - where the verb already appears in a figurative sense: “it has become tense”), or (especially in dictionaries of more volume) with quotations from authoritative writers. As a rule, explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical description of the word, indicating with the help of special marks the part of speech, the grammatical gender of the noun, the type of the verb, etc. The pronunciation of the word is also indicated to some extent (for example, in Russian explanatory dictionaries - accent).
Usually explanatory dictionaries are dictionaries of the modern literary language. Some of them are strictly normative in nature, that is, they select only facts that are fully consistent with the literary norm, recommend these facts as the only “correct” ones, and cut off everything that even slightly deviates towards vernacular. Many other explanatory dictionaries are characterized by a broader understanding of the literary language and, accordingly, the inclusion of colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary in the dictionary (except for narrow regional, dialect, highly professional and purely slang elements). Both the last academic dictionaries of the Russian language belong to this type - the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1950-1965) and the 4-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language (1957-1961), as well as the one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian language” by S. I. Ozhegov (9th revision and additional edition, edited by N. Yu. Shvedova, 1972), which is very useful for practical purposes, and the earlier “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” team of authors, ed. D. N. Ushakova (4 volumes, 1935-1940). Of particular importance for Russian lexicography is, of course, the 17-volume academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, containing more than 120,000 words.
dictionary Russian language lexicography
Hosted on Allbest.ru
...Similar Documents
Russian lexicography and compilation of dictionaries. Classification of dictionaries: etymological, explanatory, synonymous, phraseological, spelling and dictionaries of difficulties of the Russian language. Study of famous dictionary editions. Publication of dictionaries-libraries.
thesis, added 05/07/2009
Social functions, meaning and principles of classification of modern English dictionaries. Types of special dictionaries: phraseological units, the language of writers, quotations. The concept of mythologems and their examples. Formation of biblical lexicography, its main trends.
abstract, added 06/16/2013
History of dictionaries, their functions. The essence of their explanatory and terminological types. Systematization of neologisms, foreign words, translation terms, phraseological units. Analysis of the new in Russian vocabulary. Using dictionaries to check spelling.
presentation, added 10/26/2014
Acquaintance with the process of speech development of younger students. Characteristics of the main linguistic dictionaries of the Russian language. Normalization of speech as its correspondence to the literary and linguistic ideal. Analysis of the types of norms of the modern Russian literary language.
thesis, added 02/11/2014
Explanatory dictionaries. Editions of the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. One-volume dictionary of the Russian language. system dictionaries. Dictionary of Russian synonyms. Dictionaries of foreign words. Translation dictionaries. Electronic dictionaries.
abstract, added 01/29/2007
Main trends in the development of English lexicography. Analysis of British, American and Russian dictionaries, features of their composition and ways of representing lexical units. Classification, types and structure of dictionaries and dictionary entries.
training manual, added 04/26/2011
The problem of the emergence and stylistic role of synonyms. The value of dictionaries in human life, their classification. Scientific and applied meaning of the dictionary of synonyms A.Yu. Kozhevnikov, its features, role in the study of a foreign language and in translation.
term paper, added 01/14/2013
The concept of synonyms. Functions, the meaning of synonyms in the language. Grouping of words and phrases, which is of a systemic nature. Identification of the meaning of synonymous means. Principles of compiling synonymous dictionaries of the English language. Activity. Bilingualism.
scientific work, added 02/25/2009
Working with dictionaries in elementary school; reading-consideration, methods of teaching and educating younger students. Types of dictionaries: school educational Russian, explanatory, large phraseological, spelling; synonyms and antonyms of the Russian language.
term paper, added 11/13/2011
The concept and place of dictionaries in the spiritual life of society, the features of their functions. The number and variety of words in the Russian language. The history of the origin of the dictionary in Europe and Russia, the distinctive features of the main stages. Specificity of types of dictionaries.
