Introduction to economics. Introduction to economic theory. Needs, benefits, resources

1.1 Economics as a science: subject, functions, methods of studying economic phenomena, role and place in the knowledge system.

1.2 Levels of economics: microeconomics, mesoeconomics, macroeconomics, megaeconomics - essence and specific problems. The essence of a positive and normative approach in the development of economic processes.

1.3 Economic laws and economic categories. Economic relations and their types.

1.1 Economics as a science: subject, functions, methods of studying economic phenomena, role and place in the knowledge system

The word “economy” is of Greek origin (oikos – house, economy, nomos – rule, law), it means “laws of management”. In general, under the term "economy" understand the economy in a broad sense this word, the science of economy and management, as well as relationships between people in the process of management. Economics, like any other academic discipline, has its own subject of study .

Firstly , the economy is an economic system that ensures the satisfaction of the needs of people and society as a whole by creating the necessary goods (industry economics, regional economy(district, region, region, country), world economy).

Secondly , the economy is a set of economic (production) relations between people that develop in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, material goods and services.

Third , economics is the science of choosing the most effective (rational) ways to satisfy the unlimited needs of people with limited economic resources.

There are other definitions of the subject of “economics”, but generally accepted in last years The following is considered. Economy is the science of the optimal, efficient use of rare, limited economic resources in order to satisfy the limitless and constantly changing needs of people, companies and society as a whole.

The economy performs the following main functions:

1. Methodological function. Many economists rightly argue that economic theory is not only a doctrine, but also a method. Methodologically, economic science teaches not only what to do, but also what not to do. Economic science helps us understand the economic life around us, evaluate the benefits of some phenomena and the harm of others; teaches new ways of understanding economic phenomena, allows us to foresee some of the consequences of our practical actions.

2. Scientific-cognitive function is to comprehensively study the economic processes and phenomena of production activity of the economy. The processes of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, material goods and services, without which the existence of human society is impossible. Based on theoretical generalizations of real factors in the economic life of the economy, the scientific-cognitive function reveals the patterns and principles of the economy, and allows us to discover the economic laws according to which human society develops.

3. Critical function is to give an objective critical or positive assessment of economic phenomena and processes of various forms of management. IN real life We are dealing with a variety of forms of management, some of them are more effective, others are less effective, and others are unprofitable.

4. Practical (recommendatory) or application function is that, based on a positive assessment of economic phenomena and processes, economics gives recommendations to the leaders of the state, company, and any other economic entity, in their specific affairs, to be guided by its principles and methods of rational management. This function is closely related to the economic policy of the state; it develops the country’s socio-economic programs and makes scientific forecasts for the development of certain processes in the economy.

5. Political function involves the use of economic interests in political processes, especially in shaping the political goals and promises of social movements.

By studying economic processes and social phenomena, economics as a science uses a certain a set of methods of cognition (methods for studying economic processes and phenomena) :

1. General scientific methods.

1.1. Method of scientific abstraction. Its essence is to highlight the main thing in the object of study while abstracting (abstracting) from the unimportant, random, temporary, and impermanent. The result of scientific abstraction is the development of new scientific categories (concepts) that express the essential aspects of the objects under study, as well as the identification of economic patterns.

1.2. Historical method – economic phenomena and processes are studied in the sequence in which they arose in life itself, developed, improved, and what they have become at the present time.

1.3. Boolean method – allows you to correctly apply the laws of mental activity that justify the rules for the transition from one judgment to another and draw a reasonable conclusion. The logical method allows us to better understand the cause-and-effect relationships that develop between the processes and phenomena of real economic life.

Method of analysis and synthesis. Analysis is a method of cognition that involves dividing the whole into separate component parts and studying each of these parts. For example, analysis of the cost indicator by cost elements (raw materials, wages, energy resources, etc.). Synthesis is a method of cognition based on combining individual parts of a phenomenon, studied in the process of analysis, into a single whole. For example, determining the cost of production (as the sum of all costs).

Method of induction and deduction. Induction is the movement of research from individual, particular factors to general conclusions and generalizations. The research begins with the study of facts, analyzing, systematizing, generalizing the facts, the researcher comes to a conclusion in which he records the presence of certain dependencies between economic phenomena. Deduction is the formulation of hypotheses and their subsequent testing against facts. A hypothesis is an assumption about the existence of a certain relationship between economic phenomena and processes. A hypothesis is usually born on the basis of some unsystematic observations, practical experience, intuition, and logical reasoning.

2. Special methods.

2.1. Economic and mathematical analysis and modeling using computer technologies contributes to the construction of economic models, reflects the main economic indicators of the objects under study and the relationships between them. At the same time, economic and mathematical models make it possible to identify the features and patterns of economic phenomena and processes.

2.2. Graphical method reflects economic processes and phenomena using various schemes, graphs, diagrams, ensuring brevity, conciseness, and clarity in the presentation of complex theoretical material.

2.3. Economic experiments – is the artificial creation of economic processes and phenomena in certain conditions, close to economic activity, for the purpose of studying them and further practical application.

There is a close relationship between economics and law, especially when creating a number of models that should exist in the national and global economy. To solve this problem, it is necessary to legislatively provide this socio-economic system with regulatory and legal acts.

Thus, for the development of a market economy, the state must at least legally ensure:

firstly, guarantees of private property in general and the rights of private entrepreneurs specifically;

secondly, the implementation of government fiscal, monetary and exchange rate policies;

thirdly, the protection of the economic rights of workers and non-working citizens.

In modern conditions, it is necessary to adopt international legal acts and implement national legislation in accordance with them.

Levels of economics: microeconomics, mesoeconomics, macroeconomics, megaeconomics - essence and specific problems. The essence of a positive and normative approach in the development of economic processes

Economics as a science studies processes and phenomena in various levels systems and identifies specific problems that arise on them.

Level 1 – Microeconomics - This special section economic theory, which studies the economic relations between economic entities, their activities and impact on the national economy. Economic entities of microeconomics include consumers, workers, capital owners, enterprises (firms), households, and entrepreneurs. Microeconomics focuses on producers and consumers who make decisions about output, sales, purchases, consumption, prices, costs, and profits.

Microeconomics explains how prices for individual goods are set, what funds and why are invested in the development of certain sectors of the national economy, how consumers make decisions about purchasing goods and how their choice is influenced by changes in prices and their income, etc. Microeconomics studies the market behavior of subjects , the relationship between them in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, material goods and services, as well as the relationship between producers, consumers and the state. Microeconomics as a method of economic analysis based on assessments and studies of the behavior of individual units of the economic process - entrepreneurs, despite the fact that each individual unit is taken to be free and isolated.

Level 2 – Mesoeconomics - this is a section of economic theory that studies economic processes and phenomena occurring in a region or in a separate industry - covering all intermediate systems (agribusiness, military-industrial complex, health care economics, trade, that is, the economy of individual industries and spheres of the national economy). Within the framework of the regional economy, there are uniform conditions on the territory of the subject - natural and climatic, financial, legal, etc. – therefore, a number of processes occurring within the region have similar characteristics. Within the same industry, common or similar technological processes are used, therefore, the economic processes and problems of individual enterprises are similar.

Level 3 – Macroeconomics (national economy) is a branch of economic theory that studies economic processes and phenomena covering national economy, How unified system, in which all links of material and immaterial production are organically connected. The main problems of macroeconomics are: inflation, unemployment, economic growth, gross national product, gross domestic product, national income, level and quality of life of the population, employment, money, interest rates, investment, budget deficit, taxes, methods of government regulation, etc. .

Macroeconomics as a method of economic analysis based on the assessment of macroeconomic indicators (gross domestic product, gross national product, national income, disposable income, etc.).

Level 4 – World Economy (mega-economy) - the totality of all national economies connected by the international division of labor, the world market, and a system of interstate economic relations.

In economics we can also distinguish two directions of development of economic processes depending on the area of ​​application of its results .

1. Positive (descriptive) economics studies facts and dependencies between them. It is designed to rely on accumulated knowledge and experience to answer the questions: what is and what can be in the economy? Practical judgments concerning the real state of the economy are called positive. The main product of this part of economic science is knowledge, generalizations, economic analysis, analytical forecast (collection of facts, generalization of observation results). She describes, analyzes, but does not make recommendations.

2. Normative economics sets itself a more complex task - to tell about what should be, how to act in order to achieve the desired results. She operates with categories, recipes containing in the first place the words: must, necessary, should. Theoretical judgments that consider desired states are called normative. She gives recommendations, recipes for action.

Lecture 1
Presentation on the topic:
Introduction to Economics
Ph.D., Associate Professor
Jano Jomaa

Questions for consideration

1. Subject, functions and methods of economics.
The relationship between economics and law
2. Micro- and macroeconomics. Positive and
normative economics
3. Economic laws and economic
categories. Economic relations and their
types
4. Main stages of economic development
theories

1. Subject, functions and methods
economy. Relationship
economics and law

Economics concept

The word "economy" is Greek
origin (oikonomike - “art
households"), it means "laws
management."
In general, under the term “economy”
understand farming in the broadest sense
words - the science of economics and
management, as well as relations between
people in the process of managing.

Economics subject

Firstly, the economy is an economic system
ensuring satisfaction of needs
people and society as a whole.
Secondly, the economy is a collection
economic (production) relations between
people formed in the production process,

material goods and services.
Thirdly, economics is the science of choosing the most
effective (rational) ways
satisfying the limitless needs of people
limited economic resources.

Functions of the economy

1. Methodological function.
2. Scientific-cognitive function.
3. Critical function.
4. Practical (recommendatory), or
applied, function.

Methodological function

Economic theory is not only
teaching, but also method.
Economic science in methodological terms:
1) teaches what to do and what not to do,
helps us understand the surrounding economic
life, evaluate the benefits of some phenomena and the harm
others;
2) teaches new ways of understanding economic
phenomena, allows us to predict some
consequences of our practical actions.

Scientific-cognitive function

Scientific and cognitive function of economics
is to comprehensively study
production processes, distribution,
exchange and consumption of material goods and
services.
Based on theoretical generalizations
real factors of economic life
scientific and cognitive function of economics
allows us to discover the laws by which society develops.

Critical function

The critical function of economics is
to give objective critical
or a positive assessment of the economic
phenomena and processes of various forms
management.
In real life we ​​deal with the most
various forms of management, some
some of them are more effective, others less
effective, while others are unprofitable. Practical (recommendatory), or applied,
function is that based on the positive
assessment of economic phenomena and economic processes
makes recommendations to state leaders,
company, any other economic entity in
be guided by her in your specific affairs
principles and methods of rational
management.
This function is closely related to the economic
state policy, it develops the country’s socio-economic programs, draws up
scientific forecasts for the development of certain processes in
economy.

11. Methods of economics

1. Method of scientific abstraction.
2. Historical method.
3. Logical method.
4. Method of analysis and synthesis.
5. Method of induction and deduction.
6. Economic and mathematical modeling with
the use of computer technology.
7. Graphic method.
8. Economic experiments.

12. Method of scientific abstraction

The method of scientific abstraction highlights the main
in the object of study when abstracted from
insignificant, accidental, temporary,
fickle.
The result of scientific abstraction is the development
new scientific categories (concepts),
expressing essential aspects
objects under study, as well as identifying
economic laws.

13. Historical method

According to historical methods
economic phenomena and processes
are studied in the order in which
how they arose, developed,
improved and what they became in
present time.

14. Logical method

The logical method allows you to correctly
apply the laws of thought
activities justifying
rules for the transition from some judgments to
others and draw informed conclusions,
understand more deeply the cause-and-effect relationships that develop
between processes and phenomena
real economic life.

15. Method of analysis and synthesis

Analysis is a method of cognition that involves
dividing a whole into individual components
parts and studying each of these parts,
for example, analysis of the cost indicator by
cost elements (raw materials, wages,
energy resources, etc.).
Synthesis is a method of cognition based on
connecting individual parts of a phenomenon,
studied in the process of analysis into a single whole,
for example, defining an indicator
cost of production (as the sum of all
costs).

16. Method of induction and deduction

Induction is the movement of research from individual,
private factors to general conclusions and generalizations.
Research begins with examining the facts.
Analyzing, systematizing, summarizing facts,
the researcher comes to a conclusion that fixes
the presence of certain dependencies between
economic phenomena.
Deduction is the making of hypotheses and their subsequent
fact check. Hypothesis - assumption about
existence of a certain relationship between
economic phenomena and processes, it usually
is born on the basis of some unsystematic
observations, practical experience, intuition, logical
reasoning.

17. Economic and mathematical modeling

Economic and mathematical modeling with
application of computer technologies
contributes to building economic
models, reflects the main economic
indicators of the objects under study and
relationships between them.
Economic and mathematical models
allow us to identify features and
patterns of economic phenomena and
processes.

18. Graphic method

The graphical method reflects
economic processes and phenomena with
using various diagrams, graphs,
diagrams, ensuring brevity,
conciseness, clarity in presentation
complex theoretical material.

19. Economic experiments

Economic experiments are
artificial creation of economic
processes and phenomena in certain
conditions close to
economic activity, with the aim of
their study and further
practical application.

20. The relationship between economics and law

Between economics and law there is
close relationship.
So, for the development of a market economy
the state must ensure:
1) guarantees of private property in general and
rights of private entrepreneurs in
in particular;
2) carrying out appropriate
state tax and budgetary,
monetary and exchange rate policy;
3) protection of the economic rights of workers and
unemployed citizens.

21.

2. Micro- and macroeconomics.
Positive and normative
economy

22. Microeconomics

Microeconomics is a branch of economic theory,
studying economic relations between
economic entities, their activities and
impact on the national economy.
Economic entities of microeconomics include consumers, workers, owners of capital,
enterprises (firms), households,
entrepreneurs.
The focus of microeconomics is on producers and
consumers making decisions about
volumes of production, sales, purchases, consumption,
prices, costs and profits.

23. Macroeconomics (national economy)

Macroeconomics is a branch of economic theory,
studying economic processes and phenomena,
covering the national economy as a single
a system in which everything is organically connected
links of material and intangible
production.
The main problems of macroeconomics are inflation,
unemployment, economic growth, gross
national product, gross domestic product,
national income, level and quality of life
population, employment, money, interest rates,
investments, budget deficit, taxes, methods
government regulation, etc.

24. Mesoeconomics

Mesoeconomics studies economic
phenomena and processes covering all
intermediate systems or industries
national economy (agrarian and industrial complex, military-industrial complex,
health economics, economics
trade, i.e. economy of individual
industries and spheres of the national economy).

25. World Economy

The world economy is the sum of all
national economies associated
international division of labor,
world market, system
interstate economic
connections.

26. Positive (descriptive) economics

Positive economics comes from
accumulated knowledge and experience and responds to
questions: what is and what could be in
economy?
The main product of this part of the economic
sciences - knowledge, generalizations, economics
analysis, analytical forecast (collection of facts,
generalization of observation results). She
describes, analyzes, but does not give
recommendations.

27. Normative economics

Normative economics sets itself
a more difficult task is to tell what
should be how to act in order to
achieve the desired results.
She operates with categories, recipes,
containing in the first place the words: necessary,
necessary, should.
Theoretical judgments considering
desired states are called
normative.
This economy gives recommendations, recipes
actions.

28.

3. Economic laws and
economic categories.
Economic relations and their
types

29. Economic laws

Economic laws are objective
character, act independently of the will and
people's consciousness. So, the laws of the market: the law
value, law of demand, law of supply,
law of competition - exist independently
depends on whether market participants know about them or not.
The more deeply people understand the nature of action
economic laws, the more effective
can be used in economic
activities.
Economic laws can be conditionally
divided into general and specific.

30. General economic laws

General economic laws operate in
all socio-economic systems
(formations), for example, the law of correspondence
industrial relations nature and
level of development of productive forces,
law of labor productivity growth, law
saving time, laws of advanced
reproduction, law of value, law
supply and demand.

31. Specific economic laws

Specific laws apply in one
socio-economic system. Such
laws are the law of surplus
value, universal law
capitalist accumulation, law
distribution by labor, Federal laws
RF “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)”, “On
joint stock companies", "On state support for small
entrepreneurship in Russian
Federation" and others.

32. Economic categories

Economic categories are
most general concepts, reflecting
essential properties of economic
phenomena, their relationship to various
manifestations and aspects of social
life.
Examples of such categories: cost,
price, labor, money, property,
goods, etc.

33. Economic (production) relations

Economic relations are
relationship between people,
folding in progress
social production,
distribution, exchange and consumption
vital benefits.
There are two types of economic
relations: socio-economic
(property relations) and
organizational and economic.

34. Socio-economic relations

Socio-economic relations
include people's attitudes towards
means of production, i.e. relationship
property, production relations
material goods and services, their
distribution, exchange and consumption.
The following forms are historically known
property: public, private,
state In addition, there are
varieties - intermediate and
mixed forms of ownership.

35. Organizational and economic relations

Organizational and economic relations - This is
relations arising in connection with the separation and
labor cooperation are determined by technological
production method.
Organizational and economic relations
are divided into three types:
1) division of labor and production;
2) concentration of production of certain types
goods in those regions where they are produced
economically feasible;
3) differentiation, labor specialization
activities.

36.

4. Main stages of development
economic theory

37. Main stages in the development of economic theory

Schools, their
representatives and
Formation period
- Mercantilism
(first school
economy).
-Thomas Men (1571 –
1641).
-XVI – XVIII centuries
Key Ideas
1. The main wealth of society
- this is money (gold and
silver).
2. The source of wealth is the sphere
circulation (trade).
3.Wealth accumulates in
as a result of foreign trade.

38.

Schools, their
representatives and
Formation period
-- School of Physiocrats
(nature and power)
-- Francois Quesnay (1694
– 1774)
-- XVIII century
Key Ideas
1. True wealth
the nation is the product,
produced in rural
farm.
2. The first to try
withdraw wealth gain
their production process,
not appeals.

39.

Schools, their
Key Ideas
representatives and
Formation period
- English classical
political economy.
- William Petty (1623 –
1687),
- Adam Smith (1723 – 1790),
- David Ricardo (1772 –
1823).
- XVII – XIX centuries.
1. The wealth of a nation is created in
material production, and
not in the sphere of circulation.
2. The main source of wealth is
work.
3. Political economy revealed
the importance of labor as the basis and
measures of the value of all goods.
4. Laid the foundations of labor
theory of value.

40.

Schools, their
representatives and
Formation period
-- Marxism
-- Karl Marx (1818 –
1883)
-- Friedrich Engels (
1820 – 1895)
- Since the middle of the 19th century.
Key Ideas
1. Theory developed
cost and theory
surplus value.
2. K. Marx distinguished
consumer and
exchange value.

41.

Schools, their
Key Ideas
representatives and
Formation period
- Neoclassical
direction.
- Alfred
Marshall (18421924), English
- Since the end of the 19th century.
1.Private enterprise
market system capable of
self-regulation and
maintaining economic
balance.
2. The state creates
favorable conditions for
functioning of the market
economy

42.

Schools, their
representatives and
period
Formations
Key Ideas
- Keynesianism.
- John Keynes (18831946),
Englishman
- Since the 1930s.
1. The theory of supply and demand has been developed, and
also the equilibrium price.
2. The state must actively regulate
economy, because the market is unable to provide
socio-economic stability
society
3. The state must, through the budget and credit
regulate the economy, eliminating crises,
ensuring full employment and high growth
production.
4. The theory of effective demand and
theory of effective investment

43.

Schools, their
representatives and
period
Formations
Key Ideas
- Neoclassical
synthesis. John Hicks
(1904-1989),
- Paul Samuelson
(1915), Americans
- Since the 1950s.
1. Depending on economic development
it is proposed to use either Keynesian
government regulation recommendations,
or the recipes of economists who stand on
restrictions positions
government intervention in the economy.
2. The best regulator is monetary
methods.
3. The market mechanism is capable of
establish a balance between demand and
supply, production and consumption

44.

Schools, their representatives and
Formation period
Key Ideas
- Monetarism.
- Milton Friedman (1912)
American
- Since the 1970s.
1. Put forward monetary
national income theory
and a new option
quantity theory of money.
2. Main method
impact on the economy -
state
regulation through emissions,
credit interest, tax
rates, customs tariffs

Jk started his career as... economical, but I'm sorry about the progression, because I think it's too fnpyyna.

Max Planck (1858-1947), founder of quantum physics

E/yo oiranno. L abandoned economic theory because it was thought that it was too advanced.

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), English philosopher, founder of modern mathematical logic

Economy - A fascinating science, it is amazing because its functional principles are very simple, they can be written down on one sheet of paper, and only a few people understand them better than them.

Milton Friedman (1912-2006), English economist, Nobel laureate

Do niex noft, as long as you sucked life not rightly(pae(p your national economy, based on individual. peculiarities of the Russian pear, we will be in the process of moving between various fashionable teachings, getting carried away one by one (by one, not by another.

Sergei Yulievich Witte (1849-1915), prominent Russian statesman

PREFACE

The question of the role of economic theory in higher economic education can hardly be considered controversial. It is generally accepted that economic theory is a fundamental, original and leading academic economic discipline. Mastery of its material creates a reliable theoretical basis for the study of branch economic sciences. Therefore, a clear, in the modern sense, and concise presentation of complex and mostly controversial provisions of economic theory is a necessary condition for mastering the conceptual and categorical apparatus of economics. The textbook poses exactly this problem.

The proposed textbook was written in the first decade of the 21st century, which humanity entered, relying on the potential, trends and traditions formed in the 20th century. This is an era of new, fundamental changes in all spheres of human life, and above all in the economic one. Economic theory as a science associated with practice reflects these processes.

Modern economic theory is a certain synthesis of the ideas of various economic schools and directions: this is classical political economy, Marxism, neoclassicism, Keynesianism, and institutionalism. And this is natural. Economic science is developing rapidly, like the entire economic world. In Russia at the end of the 20th century. a decisive breakthrough was made into the vast world of economic ideas accumulated by world science after the publication of the works of K. Marx. There was no longer a need for mandatory condemnation of all bourgeois economic theories; on the contrary, they began to be deeply studied, and sometimes even extolled. However, the shortcomings of the new approach to the study of economics as a science quickly became apparent, because Western textbooks were written in relation to the conditions of a developed market economy, which did not correspond to the economy of the huge country being reformed at that time. Based on the experience of the past, the authors strive to reveal the modern concept of economic theory, taking into account Russian specifics, the peculiarities of the perception of the market mechanism by people who grew up in conditions of rejection of the Western ideology of market relations.

In addition, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the beginning of the 21st century. characterized by new processes of widespread transformation of economic systems, the emergence of a post-industrial, neo-information society, knowledge economy, education, transition economy. Such processes include globalization, informatization, computerization, technological explosion, etc.; they have not yet received sufficient coverage in the latest economic theory. These transformational changes in the economy are accompanied by a concentration of research on the human problem, the process of establishing human knowledge, skills, intelligence and creativity to the center of the economic system. The authors discussed these aspects in this textbook.

At the same time, emphasis is placed on the need to change people’s thinking, thinking that goes back several generations to the ideas of a planned economy, the formation of a new economic thinking inherent not just in a market economy, but in an economy of a new type, which has absorbed the signs of the above global world transformations. In the conditions of the “new economy”, the ability not just for creative thinking, but for non-standard vision, extraordinary decisions and actions, innovation, leadership - these are the main requirements for specialists. It’s not for nothing that the main characteristic of the “new economy”, which distinguishes it from the existing one, is called “the power of geniuses”, “the power of brains”, i.e. the power of new ideas. In this case, theoretical knowledge comes first, contributing to the development of the thinking apparatus. Learning to think independently based on the analysis of various teachings, theories and views of theoretical scientists becomes the primary task when studying and teaching a course in economic theory.

One of the goals of writing this textbook is to popularize economic science in society. The textbook is intended not only for students and teachers of economic universities, it is useful for everyone who is interested in economics. After all, the goal of this science is to expand the range of opportunities and choices available to every person in everyday life, to help as much as possible more people in achieving well-being. The economy strives to provide a high quality of life in all aspects, not just financial. After all, the economic way of thinking is a special approach to understanding the world, which can be used in almost any situation affecting both individuals and companies, industries, and states. Every active citizen needs to master economic thinking skills. The more people can make decisions in their daily activities, the higher the standard of living for everyone will be and the richer our country will be.

The authors continue to improve the textbook and will be grateful to everyone who finds it possible to express their opinions, wishes and comments at: This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. To view it, you must have JavaScript enabled

Economic theory originally arose in ancient society as saving - the science of home economics, household management. Its goal was to educate worthy citizens. “Oikos” (house, household) and “nomos” (know, law), which literally means art, knowledge, a set of rules for housekeeping. The term "economy" was first proposed Xenophon. It is also found at Aristotel(384-322 BC) within the framework of the doctrine of justice (Aristotle."Policy").

In modern conditions, the term “economy” has the followingvalues:

National economy of a given country or part of it, including individual sectors (industrial economics, Agriculture etc.); economy of a district, region, country, group of countries or the whole world (regional economy, world economy, Russian economy, etc.);

scientific discipline, engaged in the study of human activity, its laws and patterns (theoretical economics, political economy), some conditions and elements of production (economics of population, labor, management, etc.), certain industries and types of economic activity (economics of livestock farming, education, etc.) P.).

academic discipline, engaged in bringing to trainees with the help methodological techniques educational process of knowledge already obtained by science and tested by practice.

E Economics is an economic system that provides meeting the needs of people and society through creation and use of necessary life goods.

The significance of economic theory lies not in the fact that it is a set of ready-made recommendations applicable directly to economic practice and policy, but in the fact that, according to J. Keynes, it serves as a method, an intellectual tool, a thinking technique, helps to who owns it, come to the right conclusions and conclusions.

Among the approaches to determining the structure of economic science in the 20th century, one can note the identification of “normative and positive economic science.” Normative economic studies imply the creation of certain rules, norms, and regulations for practicing economists and managers, i.e., a reflection of what the economy “should be” like.

Against, positive approach involves a description of the current situation in the economic sphere, a statement of “what is” the economic system.

The modern curriculum in “Economic Theory”, based on the requirements of the state standard of higher professional education of the Russian Federation, includes political economy, history of economic doctrines, microeconomics, mesoeconomics, macroeconomics, transition economics and world economics.

At the same time, the basis of the program is political Economy And economics.

Historically, the term political economy meant the study of socio-economic relations. The moment of its emergence is associated with the works of representatives of the English classical school (A. Smith. D. Ricardo, etc.).

Economics emerged in the last thirdXIXV. It was created through the efforts of scientists from Austria, the USA, England and other countries (K. Menger, O. Böhm-Bawerk, etc.)

Socio-economic relations – These are economic ties between large social groups, individual teams and members of society. They have as their main content the determination of the form of ownership of the conditions and fruits of production activity. They include three significant types: property relations, socio-economic relations in production, social relations of distribution of goods and services.

Economics is the study of organizational and economic relations.

Organizational and economic relations arise because social production, distribution, exchange and consumption are impossible without a certain organization.

In this regard, organizational and economic relations are divided into three large types (which in turn include corresponding specific forms): labor cooperation(joint production of products, enlargement of the size of enterprises, their constant cooperation and unification) and division of labor on its individual types; forms of organization of economic activity(subsistence and commodity-market farming); economic management(spontaneous market and state planned regulation).

It should be noted that socio-economic and organizational-economic relations differ very significantly from each other.

Thus, socio-economic relations are specific: they are characteristic of only one historical era or one social system (for example, primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, etc.). Therefore, they have a historically transitory character. Socio-economic relations change as a result of the transition from one specific form of ownership to another.

In contrast, organizational and economic ties exist, as a rule, regardless of the socio-economic system. They are essentially common elements of the economy of all countries. For example, the same forms of economic organization (factories, combines, service enterprises, etc.) can be successfully used in different social systems.

In the 20th century An acute confrontation developed between political economy and economics, which destroyed their unity and interaction. This was largely caused by the use of political economy to justify the political system in the USSR and other socialist states and economics to reinforce capitalist ideology in Western countries.

At the moment, this confrontation does not exist. This is due to the disappearance of links in economic relations that led to the confrontation between political economy and economics. At the same time, trends towards a certain convergence arose. Thus, political economy, while remaining a social science, was supplemented by the study of organizational connections in economics, and economics began to additionally consider socio-economic relations between people.

Therefore, modern political economy and economics are often perceived as synonymous concepts.

In the middle of the last century, under the influence of the studies of the Englishman J. M. Keynes and the American P. Samuelson, the most accepted concept in economic theory was the identification of 2 main sections within its framework: micro- and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics, as the name implies, it studies the economic activities of small economic entities: households and enterprises.

Macroeconomics was conceived as a section of science devoted to the analysis of the activities of groups of economic sectors and the entire state.

Of course, any division or classification is a rather conditional matter. In this case, this is manifested in the fact that many problems find themselves at the intersection of the “interests” of micro- and macroeconomics. For example, Keynesian analysis of the propensity to consume and save can be carried out within either one or the other section. It is also unclear why the labor market is usually analyzed within the framework of microeconomics, and the chapter on unemployment is an attribute of any macroeconomic opus.

For a long time, macroeconomics and microeconomics were practically unrelated branches of economic knowledge: “the lack of a clear relationship between macroeconomics and microeconomics has long been a source of concern among economists; countless students complained about the “schizophrenic” nature of a discipline whose two main branches had such radically different worldviews.”

It is also obvious that such structuring is insufficient to cover all economic problems. Thus, in recent years, as an intermediate link between micro- and macroeconomics, "meh"zooeconomics", within the framework of which aspects of the economic activity of a particular region and industry are studied.

Separated into a separate section « megaeconomy", the object of study being the economy of the world community as a whole.

In the general system of sciences, general economic theory performs certain functions.

First of all, she performs a cognitive function, since it must study and explain the processes and phenomena of the economic life of society.

Second function general economic theory - practical (pragmatic) - development of principles and methods of rational management, scientific justification of the economic strategy for implementing reforms of economic life, etc.

Third function general economic theory – forecasting and pragmatic, involving the development and identification of scientific forecasts and prospects for social development.

These functions of economic theory are carried out in the everyday life of a civilized society. Economic science plays a huge role in shaping the economic environment, determining the scale and direction of economic dynamics, optimizing sectoral structures of production and exchange, and increasing the general standard of living of the population on a national scale.

Economic policy should be distinguished from economic theory.

Economic theories have developed in search of answers to problems posed by economic practice, but they remain only a tool for understanding economic reality and predicting its dynamics.

Economic policy– a purposeful system of state activities in the field of social production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods. It is designed to reflect the interests of society, all its social groups, and is aimed at strengthening the national economy.

Economic policy is concerned with finding solutions to economic problems and putting their mechanisms into action. Politicians, using economic theory, must also take into account the cultural, social, legal and political aspects of the problem being solved if their policies are to be successful. The implementation of economic policy objectives can lead to changes in the economic system and its improvement, which is reflected in the subsequent development of economic theory.

Isolating the functions of economic theory allows us to determine its place among other economic sciences (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The place of economic theory in the system of economic sciences

When defining the subject of economic theory in order to understand it more clearly, it is advisable to highlight : field of study– economic life or environment in which economic activity is carried out; object of study– economic phenomena; research subject– person, group of people, state; subject of study– the life activity of an “economic person”, a group of people and the state, their economic behavior in connection with the economic environment in which they find themselves. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that the main task of economic theory– not just give a description of economic phenomena, but show their interrelation and interdependence, i.e. present a system of economic phenomena, processes and laws. This is what distinguishes it from specific economic disciplines.

Introduction to Economics 2

Topic 1. Subject and method of economic science 2

Topic 2 Consumer needs Rational consumer behavior in the market 5

Structure of consumer goods 7

Topic 1. Rational consumer behavior 9

Topic 2. Consumer needs. rational consumer behavior in the market 11

Topic 3 Production Economic resources of production 12

Topic 4 Limited production resources. Problem of choice. Alternative production options 14

Topic 5. Economic systems and their characteristics 16

Topic 6. Functions of the state in a mixed economy 19

Legend 22

Introduction to Economics

Topic 1. Subject and method of economic science

Economic science covers a number of independent scientific disciplines - macroeconomics, microeconomics, political economy, marketing, management, insurance, theory of finance and money, etc. The methodological basis of all economic sciences is economic theory.

Economic theory is the science of people's use of limited productive resources to produce a variety of goods and services and their distribution among people and various groups of society for the purpose of consumption.

The subject of economics is the study of ways in which specific economic goals set by an individual or society as a whole can be achieved.

For society		For man
Development of principles that become the basis of economic policy Promoting economic awareness of the population and, consequently, democratization of society Forecasting developments in society		Promoting rational behavior in the sphere of consumption, the appropriate use of individual savings Formation of skills to navigate in the field of business Promoting the right decisions when choosing a field of activity
The importance of economic science

Basic functions of economic theory
Cognitive		Practical		Psychological
Study of economic processes life of society, explanation of the pattern of development		Application of economic knowledge in solving everyday and industrial problems		Preparedness for changes in the economic life of society

Topic 1. Subject and method of economic science

The formation of economic science

Main directions	Founders
Mercantilism	Antoine de Montchretien, A. Serra, J.I. Becher, T. Mann, A. Ordyna-shchokin	argued that the wealth of each merchant and the country as a whole was measured by the amount of gold and silver; that the country should sell as many goods abroad as possible and buy as little of them there as possible
School of Physiocrats	F. Quesnay, A. Robert, J. Turgot, P. Boisguillebert	They considered production, primarily agricultural, to be a source of wealth. Industry was called a "sterile sphere"
classic	A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J.B. Seay, J. Stuart Mill, S. Sismondi	The theory is based on the concept of the national economy as a self-regulating system
Neoclassical	G. Gosen, K. Menger, A. Marshall, l. Walras, B. Pareto, J. Keynes	They continued the traditions and ideas of the classical school; created the theory of market economy, the foundations of microeconomics
Marxism	K. Marx, F. Engels	They considered a competitive market economy to be unstable and predicted the death of capitalism
Historical	V. Rosher, V. Gilde-brant, Ph.D.	It was believed that economic life countries are regulated not by market mechanisms, but by historically established social structures with a decisive role of the state

"...Economic science does not give ready-made recommendations, which are directly used in economic policy. Rather, it acts as a method rather than a teaching, an intellectual tool, a thinking technique, helping those who own it to draw the right conclusions...” (J. Keynes)

M.A. Baludyansky is a follower of A. Smith; author of the work "Economic System", in which he substantiates the principles of building a national economy on the basis of free market relations.

M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky - researcher of market theory and economic crises, developed the concept of economic conditions.

HER. Slutsky was the first to propose the use of mathematical methods in economic science.

Observation and fact-gathering

Graphic

unity of historical

Abstraction

(statistical)

logical and logical

Ignoring certain properties, that is, a certain simplification of reality

Perception of economic processes in real form and collection of facts that occur in reality

Displaying business processes and phenomena using drawings, diagrams, tables, diagrams, etc.

Study of socio-economic processes in historical sequence with logical generalizations

Economic research methods

Analysis and synthesis

Experiment (practice)

Modeling

Deduction

Generalization (induction)

Study of socio-economic phenomena in parts (analysis) and as a whole (synthesis)

Study of socio-economic phenomena according to their theoretical model (model)

Formulating hypotheses and confirming them with facts

Conducting and studying artificial and scientific experiments

Generalizations and conclusions based on facts and observations

Biology is a set of sciences about living organisms and their relationships with each other and with inanimate nature		Sociology is the science of society as an integral system and of individual groups, relationships between the individual and society		Law is the science of the set of norms and rules established by the state that regulate the relations of people in society		Mathematics is the science that studies spatial forms and quantitative relationships

Relationship between economics and other sciences