The significance of the great Roman Empire, which once stretched over vast territories from foggy England to hot Syria, in the context of global history is unusually great. One can even say that it was the Roman Empire that was the forerunner of pan-European civilization, largely shaping its appearance, culture, science, law (medieval jurisprudence was based on Roman law), art, and education. And on our journey through time today, we will go to ancient Rome, the eternal City, which became the center of the most grandiose empire in human history.
Where was the Roman Empire located?
At the time of its greatest power, the borders of the Roman Empire extended from the territories of modern England and Spain in the West to the territories of modern Iran and Syria in the East. In the south, all of North Africa was under the heel of Rome.
Map of the Roman Empire at its height.
Of course, the borders of the Roman Empire were not constant, and after the Sun of Roman civilization began to set, and the empire itself began to decline, its borders also decreased.
The Birth of the Roman Empire
But where did it all begin, how did the Roman Empire arise? The first settlements on the site of the future Rome appeared in the 1st millennium BC. e.. According to legend, the Romans trace their ancestry to Trojan refugees who, after the destruction of Troy and long wanderings, settled in the valley of the Tiber River, all this is beautifully described by the talented Roman poet Virgil in the epic poem “Aeneid”. And a little later, two brothers Romulus and Remus, descendants of Aeneas, founded the legendary city of Rome. However, the historical authenticity of the events of the Aeneid is a big question; in other words, most likely it is just a beautiful legend, which, however, also has a practical meaning - to give the Romans a heroic origin. Moreover, considering that Virgil himself, in fact, was the court poet of the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, and with his “Aeneid” he carried out a kind of political order of the emperor.
As for real story, Rome was, most likely, really founded by a certain Romulus and his brother Remus, but it is unlikely that they were the sons of a vestal (priestess) and the god of war Mars (as the legend says), rather the sons of some local leader. And at the time of the founding of the city, a dispute broke out between the brothers during which Romulus killed Remus. And again, where is the legend and myth, and where is the real history, it is difficult to make out, but be that as it may, ancient Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.
In its political structure, the earlier Roman state was in many ways similar to city-policies. At first, ancient Rome was led by kings, but during the reign of King Tarquin the Proud, a general uprising occurred, royal power was overthrown, and Rome itself turned into an aristocratic republic.
Early History of the Roman Empire – Roman Republic
Surely many science fiction fans will notice the similarity between the Roman Republic, which later transformed into the Roman Empire, with so many beloved Star Wars, where the galactic republic also turned into the galactic empire. Essentially, the creators of Star Wars borrowed their fictional galactic republic/empire from the real history of the real Roman Empire itself.
The structure of the Roman Republic, as we noted earlier, was similar to the Greek city-polises, but there were a number of differences: the entire population of ancient Rome was divided into two large groups:
- patricians, Roman aristocrats who occupied a dominant position,
- plebeians, consisting of ordinary citizens.
The main legislative body of the Roman Republic, the Senate, consisted exclusively of rich and noble patricians. The plebeians did not always like this state of affairs, and several times the young Roman Republic was shaken by plebeian uprisings, with demands for expanded rights for the plebeians.
From the very beginning of its history, the young Roman Republic was forced to fight for its place in the Sun with neighboring Italian tribes. The vanquished were forced to submit to the will of Rome, either as allies or as fully part of the ancient Roman state. Often the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, and sometimes even turned into slaves.
The most dangerous opponents of ancient Rome were the Etruscans and Samnites, as well as some Greek colonies in southern Italy. Despite initially some hostile attitude with the ancient Greeks, the Romans subsequently almost completely borrowed their culture and religion. The Romans even took the Greek gods for themselves, although they changed them in their own way, making Zeus Jupiter, Ares Mars, Hermes Mercury, Aphrodite Venus, and so on.
Wars of the Roman Empire
Although it would be more correct to call this sub-item “the war of the Roman Republic,” which, although it fought from the very beginning of its history, in addition to minor skirmishes with neighboring tribes, there were also really big wars that shook the then ancient world. Rome's first really big war was the clash with the Greek colonies. The Greek king Pyrrhus intervened in that war, and although he managed to defeat the Romans, his own army nevertheless suffered huge and irreparable losses. Since then, the expression “Pyrrhic victory” has become a common noun, meaning a victory at too high a cost, a victory almost equal to defeat.
Then, continuing the wars with the Greek colonies, the Romans encountered another major power in Sicily - Carthage, a former colony. Over the course of many years, Carthage became Rome's main rival, and their rivalry resulted in three Punic Wars, in which Rome was victorious.
The First Punic War was fought over the island of Sicily; after the Roman victory in the naval battle of the Aegatian Islands, during which the Romans completely defeated the Carthaginian fleet, all of Sicily became part of the Roman state.
In an effort to take revenge from the Romans for their defeat in the First Punic War, the talented Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca, during the Second Punic War, first landed on the Spanish coast, then, together with the allied Iberian and Gallic tribes, made the legendary crossing of the Alps, invading the territory of the Roman state itself. There he inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the Romans, most notably the Battle of Cannae. The fate of Rome hung in the balance, but Hannibal still failed to finish what he started. Hannibal was unable to take the heavily fortified city and was forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula. Since then, military luck changed the Carthaginians; Roman troops under the command of the equally talented commander Scipio Africanus inflicted a crushing defeat on Hannibal's army. The Second Punic War was again won by Rome, which after its victory turned into a real superstate of the ancient world.
And the third Punic War already represented the final crushing of Carthage, defeated and having lost all its possessions, by the all-powerful Rome.
Crisis and fall of the Roman Republic
Having conquered vast territories and defeated serious opponents, the Roman Republic gradually accumulated more and more power and wealth in its hands until it itself entered a period of crisis caused by several reasons. As a result of the victorious wars of Rome, more and more slaves poured into the country, free plebeians and peasants could not compete with the incoming mass of slaves, and their general discontent grew. The tribunes of the people, the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, tried to solve the problem by carrying out a land use reform, which, on the one hand, would limit the possessions of rich Romans, and allow their surplus lands to be distributed among the poor plebeians. However, their initiative encountered resistance from conservative circles in the Senate, as a result Tiberius Gracchus was killed by political opponents, and his brother Gaius committed suicide.
All this led to the beginning civil war in Rome, patricians and plebeians clashed with each other. Order was restored by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, another outstanding Roman commander, who had previously defeated the troops of the Pontic king Mithridias Eupator. To restore order, Sulla established a real dictatorship in Rome, mercilessly dealing with objectionable and dissenting citizens with the help of his proscription lists. (Proscription - in ancient Rome meant being outside the law; a citizen included in Sulla’s proscription list was subject to immediate destruction, and his property was confiscated; for harboring an “outlaw citizen” - also execution and confiscation of property).
In fact, this was the end, the agony of the Roman Republic. Finally, it was destroyed and turned into an empire by the young and ambitious Roman commander Gaius Julius Caesar. In his youth, Caesar almost died during Sulla's reign of terror; only the intercession of influential relatives convinced Sulla not to include Caesar in the proscription lists. After a series of victorious wars in Gaul (modern France) and the conquest of the Gallic tribes, the authority of Caesar, the conqueror of the Gauls, grew, figuratively speaking, “to the skies.” And now he is already entering into battle with his political opponent and once ally Pompey, the troops loyal to him cross the Rubicon (a small river in Italy) and march on Rome. “The die is cast,” Caesar’s legendary phrase, meaning his intention to seize power in Rome. Thus the Roman Republic fell and the Roman Empire began.
Beginning of the Roman Empire
The beginning of the Roman Empire goes through a series of civil wars, first Caesar defeats his opponent Pompey, then he himself dies under the knives of the conspirators, among whom is his friend Brutus. (“And you Brutus?!” – Caesar’s last words).
Assassination of the first Roman emperor Julius Caesar.
The assassination of Caesar marked the beginning of a new civil war between supporters of the restoration of the republic on the one hand and Caesar's supporters Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony on the other. Having won the victory over the Republican conspirators, Octavian and Antony are already entering into a new struggle for power among themselves and civil war begins again.
Although Antony is supported by the Egyptian princess, the beautiful Cleopatra (by the way ex-lover Caesar), he suffers a crushing defeat, and Octavian Augustus becomes the new emperor of the Roman Empire. From this moment on, the high imperial period of the history of the Roman Empire begins, emperors replace each other, imperial dynasties change, and the Roman Empire itself wages constant wars of conquest and reaches the pinnacle of its power.
Fall of the Roman Empire
Unfortunately, we cannot describe the activities of all Roman emperors and all the vicissitudes of their reign, otherwise our article would greatly risk becoming vast. Let us only note that after the death of the outstanding Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, the empire itself began to decline. A whole series of so-called “soldier emperors”, former generals who, relying on their authority among the troops, usurped power, reigned on the Roman throne.
In the empire itself, there was a decline in morals, a kind of barbarization of Roman society was actively taking place - more and more barbarians penetrated the Roman army and occupied important government posts in the Roman state. There was also a demographic and economic crisis, all of which slowly led to the death of the once great Roman power.
Under Emperor Diocletian, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern. As we know, the Eastern Roman Empire over time transformed into. The Western Roman Empire was never able to survive the rapid invasion of barbarians, and the struggle with the ferocious nomads who came from the eastern steppes completely undermined the power of Rome. Soon Rome was sacked by the barbarian tribes of the Vandals, whose name also became a household name, for the senseless destruction that the Vandals caused to the “eternal city.”
Reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire:
- External enemies are, perhaps, one of the main reasons, if not for the “” and the powerful barbarian onslaught, the Roman Empire could well have existed for a couple of centuries.
- Lack of a strong leader: the last talented Roman general Aetius, who stopped the advance of the Huns and won the Battle of the Catalunian Fields, was treacherously killed by the Roman Emperor Valentinian III, who feared rivalry from the outstanding general. Emperor Valentinian himself was a man of very dubious moral qualities; of course, with such a “leader” the fate of Rome was sealed.
- Barbarization, in fact, at the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the barbarians had already enslaved it from the inside, since many government posts were occupied by them.
- The economic crisis that in the late Roman Empire was caused by the global crisis of the slave system. The slaves no longer wanted to work meekly from dawn to dusk for the benefit of the owner, here and there slave uprisings broke out, this led to military expenses, and to a rise in prices for agricultural items and a general decline in the economy.
- Demographic crisis, one of the big problems of the Roman Empire was high infant mortality and low birth rates.
Culture of Ancient Rome
The culture of the Roman Empire is an important and essential part of global culture, its integral part. We still use many of its fruits to this day, for example, sewerage and water supply, which came to us from ancient Rome. It was the Romans who first invented concrete and actively developed the art of urban planning. All European stone architecture has its origins in ancient Rome. It was the Romans who were the first to build stone multi-story buildings (so-called insula), sometimes reaching up to 5-6 floors (however, the first elevators were invented only 20 centuries later).
Also architecture Christian churches borrowed a little more than entirely from the architecture of the Roman basilica - the public meeting places of the ancient Romans.
In the field of European jurisprudence, Roman law dominated for centuries - a code of law formed back in the days of the Roman Republic. Roman law was the legal system of both the Roman Empire and Byzantium, as well as many other medieval states based on the fragments of the Roman Empire already in the Middle Ages.
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Latin language of the Roman Empire would be the language of scientists, teachers and students.
The city of Rome itself turned into the greatest cultural, economic and political center of the ancient world, it was not for nothing that there was a proverb “all roads lead to Rome.” Goods, people, customs, traditions, ideas from all over the then ecumene (known part of the world) flocked to Rome. Even silk from distant China reached the rich Romans through merchant caravans.
Of course, not all the fun of the ancient Romans will be acceptable in our time. The same gladiator fights, which were held in the arena of the Colosseum to the applause of thousands of Roman crowds, were very popular among the Romans. It is curious that the enlightened emperor Marcus Aurelius even completely banned gladiator fights for a time, but after his death, gladiator fights resumed with the same force.
Gladiator fights.
Chariot racing, which was very dangerous and often accompanied by the death of unsuccessful charioteers, was also very popular among ordinary Romans.
Theater had great development in ancient Rome; moreover, one of the Roman emperors, Nero, had a very strong passion for theatrical art, which he himself often played on stage and recited poetry. Moreover, according to the description of the Roman historian Suetonius, he did this very skillfully, so that special people even watched the audience so that they under no circumstances slept or left the theater during the emperor’s speech.
Rich patricians taught their children literacy and various sciences (rhetoric, grammar, mathematics, oratory) either with special teachers (often the teacher could be some enlightened slave) or in special schools. The Roman mob, the poor plebeians, were, as a rule, illiterate.
Art of Ancient Rome
Many wonderful works of art left by talented Roman artists, sculptors, and architects have reached us.
The Romans achieved the greatest mastery in the art of sculpture, which was greatly facilitated by the so-called Roman “cult of emperors”, according to which the Roman emperors were the viceroys of the gods, and it was simply necessary to make a first-class sculpture for each emperor.
Roman frescoes have also entered the history of art for centuries, many of which are clearly erotic in nature, such as this image of lovers.
Many works of art of the Roman Empire have come down to us in the form of grandiose architectural structures, such as the Colosseum, Emperor Hadrian's Villa, etc.
Villa of the Roman Emperor Hadrian.
Religion of ancient Rome
The state religion of the Roman Empire can be divided into two periods, pagan and Christian. That is, the Romans originally borrowed pagan religion ancient Greece, taking for themselves their mythology and gods, who were just named in their own way. Along with this, in the Roman Empire there was a “cult of emperors”, according to which the Roman emperors were to be given “divine honors”.
And since the territory of the Roman Empire was truly gigantic in size, a variety of cults and religions were concentrated in it: from beliefs to Jews professing Judaism. But everything changed with the advent of a new religion - Christianity, which had a very difficult relationship with the Roman Empire.
Christianity in the Roman Empire
At first, the Romans considered Christians to be one of the many Jewish sects, but when the new religion began to gain more and more popularity, and Christians themselves appeared in Rome itself, the Roman emperors were somewhat concerned about this. The Romans (especially the Roman nobility) were especially outraged by the categorical refusal of Christians to render divine honors to the emperor, which, according to Christian teaching, was idolatry.
As a result, the Roman Emperor Nero, already mentioned by us, in addition to his passion for acting, acquired another passion - for persecuting Christians and feeding them to hungry lions in the arena of the Colosseum. The formal reason for the persecution of the carriers of the new faith was a grandiose fire in Rome, which was allegedly started by Christians (in fact, the fire was most likely started on the orders of Nero himself).
Subsequently, periods of persecution of Christians were followed by periods of relative calm; some Roman emperors treated Christians quite favorably. For example, the emperor sympathized with Christians, and some historians even suspect that he was a secret Christian, although during his reign the Roman Empire was not yet ready to become Christian.
The last great persecution of Christians in the Roman state occurred during the reign of Emperor Diocletian, and what is interesting is that for the first time during his reign he treated Christians quite tolerantly, moreover, even some close relatives of the emperor himself accepted Christianity and the priests were already thinking about converting to Christianity and the emperor himself. But suddenly the emperor seemed to have been replaced, and in Christians he saw his worst enemies. Throughout the empire, Christians were ordered to be persecuted, forced to renounce through torture, and, if they refused, killed. What caused such a drastic change and such sudden hatred of the emperor towards Christians, unfortunately, is not known.
The darkest night before the heyday, so it became with Christians, the most severe persecution of Emperor Diocletian also became the last, subsequently Emperor Constantine reigned on the throne, not only abolished all persecution of Christians, but also made Christianity the new state religion of the Roman Empire.
Roman Empire, video
And in conclusion, a small educational film about ancient Rome.
Center Ancient Rome was located on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and the borders passed through the lands of Europe, Asia and Africa. The capital of the Roman Empire was the city Rome, in which more than a million people lived already 2000 years ago. The empire was located on Apennine Peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea.
Principate
The establishment of imperial power led to the cessation of civil wars, the restoration of peace, and a rapid rise in economic life. Roman Empire in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. was flourishing. It was one of the largest and most powerful states of that time.
In the conquered lands, the Romanization of the local population took place: the official statute received the Latin language, Roman laws formed the basis of legal proceedings, local government bodies were replaced by Roman state institutions, and the upbringing of children was often carried out according to Roman traditions. To maintain power, Roman legions were often stationed in the provinces.
Dominant
Cities and urban life developed rapidly in the Roman Empire. The cities of Italy and the provinces were improved, decorated with beautiful public buildings - temples, theaters, baths, etc. A water supply system was installed in the cities, the streets were paved with stones and stone slabs. The remains of majestic buildings of Roman times are still preserved on the territory of the former provinces of the empire - in modern Turkey, France, Spain, and the states of North Africa.
The cities of the Roman Empire enjoyed self-government: they held meetings of citizens and elected officials; performances were held here in theaters or gladiator fights in circus arenas, which attracted huge crowds of spectators.
Trade in the Roman Empire
To manage their huge empire, the Romans built strong and reliable roads. They said: “All roads lead to Rome.” Bread, wine, fabrics, metals, and jewelry were transported along the roads to Rome. Soldiers walked along them, messengers carried imperial decrees, guards led slaves.
Already at the beginning of our era, a crisis of traditional Roman spiritual values began - religion, morality, the system of relations between people. The empire, possessing enormous political power and greatness, did not have a single religion, widespread in all layers of society and among all peoples, that would unite the state and ensure its spiritual unity. The cult of the emperor clearly could not cope with this task.
The Birth of Christianity
In the 1st century n. e. in Israel, within the framework of the traditional religion of Judaism, a new religious teaching arose - Christianity, which gradually began to gain wider popularity not so much among the Jews, but among other peoples of the empire - the Greeks, Egyptians, Syrians, Romans.
Initially, the bulk of the supporters of Christianity consisted of people who had no place among the prosperous strata of society of the Roman Empire. These were poor peasants, artisans, traders, farm laborers, slaves, and women. Gradually, the number of supporters of the new religion expanded - among them were soldiers, wealthy and wealthy people, and individual representatives of the nobility. During the I-II centuries. Christianity, which defended the ideas of oneness of God, the spiritual perfection of man, and the need to follow high moral principles, became one of the most widespread and influential religions of the empire and became an important spiritual force. The Roman government initially did not pay much attention to the new religion, but when it began to play a noticeable role in the life of the empire, it tried to eradicate this creed by carrying out bloody massacres and persecution of Christians. Material from the site
The emergence of Christianity and its wide spread was one of the most profound spiritual revolutions in the history of mankind.
Christianity during the late Roman Empire
Emperor Diocletian was an opponent of the Christian religion, because of this, during his reign it did not become widespread.
Constantine, who came to power after Diocletian, on the contrary, supported it, as he understood that a religion that was gaining popularity could unite the people. This most significant reform of Constantine allowed Christianity to take a leading position in the Roman Empire and play an important role in the state.
The Roman Empire is the most extensive political and social structure of Western civilization. In 285 AD. the empire became too large to be controlled from the government in Rome, and so Emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD) divided Rome into a western and an eastern empire.
The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (27 BC-14 AD) became the first emperor of Rome and ceased to exist when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the German king Odoacer (476 AD). .e.).
In the east, the Roman Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization was profound and has significant contributions to all aspects of Western culture.
After the Battle of Acium in 31 BC. e. Gaius Octavian Turin, nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, became the first emperor of Rome and received the name Augustus Caesar. Although Julius Caesar is often considered the first Emperor of Rome, this is incorrect; he never held the title "Emperor". Julius Caesar had the title "Dictator" because Caesar had the highest military and political power. At the same time, the Senate willingly granted Augustus the title of emperor because he had destroyed Rome's enemies and brought much-needed stability.
Dynasties Julius-Claudius
Augustus ruled the empire from 31 BC until his death. As he himself said: “I found Rome a city of clay, and left it a city of marble.” Augustus reformed the laws, initiated extensive building projects (mainly directed by his loyal general Agrippa, who built the first Pantheon), and secured the status of the greatest political and cultural empire in history.
The Roman Peace (Pax Romana), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he negotiated lasted over 200 years and was a time of peace and prosperity.
After the death of Augustus, power was transferred to his heir Tiberius, who continued the policies of the previous emperor, but did not have sufficient strength of character and wisdom. The same character traits would apply to the following emperors: Caligula, Claudius and Nero. These first five rulers of the empire were called the Julio-Claudian dynasty (the name of the dynasty comes from the addition of the two surnames of Julius and Claudius).
Although Caligula became notorious for his debauchery and madness, his early reign was quite successful. Caligula's successor, Claudius, was able to expand Rome's power and territory in Britain. Caligula and Claudius were soon killed (Caligula by his Praetorian Guard, and Claudius, apparently, by his wife). Nero's suicide ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and ushered in a period of social unrest known as the "Year of the Four Emperors."
"Four Emperors"
These four rulers were Galba, Otto, Vitellius and Vespasian. After Nero's suicide in 68 AD. Galba took over (69 AD) and almost instantly proved himself an unfit ruler due to his irresponsibility. He was killed by the Praetorian Guard.
Otto was quickly succeeded by Galba on the very day of his death, and according to ancient records, he should have made a good emperor. However, General Vitellius initiated a civil war, which ended with Otto's suicide and Vitellius' ascension to the throne.
Vitellius turned out to be no better ruler than Galba; taking advantage of his position, he led a luxurious life and had fun. In this regard, the legions nominated General Vespasian as emperor and went to Rome. Vitellius was killed by Vespasian's men. Vespasian took power exactly one year after Galba ascended the throne.
Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian founded the Flavian dynasty. This dynasty was characterized by large-scale construction projects, economic prosperity and territorial expansion of the empire's borders. Vespasian reigned from 69 to 79 AD, during which time he initiated the construction of the Flavian amphitheater (the famous Roman Colosseum). The construction of the Colosseum was completed by the son Titus (ruled in the period 79-81 AD).
At the very beginning of the reign of Titus, Mount Vesuvius erupted (79 AD), which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash and lava. Ancient sources are unanimous in their opinion that Titus showed excellent strong-willed and managerial qualities in the fight against this disaster, as well as against the great fire of Rome in 80 AD. But unfortunately Titus died of fever in 81 AD. and he was succeeded by his brother Domitian, who reigned during the period 81-96 AD.
Domitian expanded and fortified Rome's borders, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire, continued the building projects begun by his brother, and improved the empire's economy. However, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the Roman Senate and he was assassinated in 96 AD.
Five Good Emperors of Rome
Domitian's successor was his advisor Nerva, who founded the Nervana-Antonina dynasty. This dynasty ruled Rome in the period 96-192 AD. This time was marked by increased prosperity, and became known as the "Five Good Emperors of Rome". Between 96 and 180 AD. e. five like-minded emperors skillfully ruled Rome and were able to take the empire to a new level. The names of the five emperors in order of their reigns are: Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180).
Under their leadership, the Roman Empire became stronger, more stable, and increased in size and scope. Also worth mentioning are Lucius Verus and Commodus, the last rulers of the Nervan-Antonin dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until he died in 169 AD. but he, according to historians, was an ineffective manager. Commodus, the son and successor of Aurelius, became one of the most disgraceful emperors to ever rule Rome. He was strangled by his wrestling partner in a bathtub, in 192 AD. Thus ended the Nervan-Antonin dynasty and the prefect Pertinax (who, most likely, was the initiator of the murder of Commodus) came to power.
Severan Dynasty, Year of the Five Emperors
Pertinax ruled for only three months before he was killed. He was followed by four more emperors, this period is known as the "Year of the Five Emperors". The culmination of which was the rise to power of Septimus Severus.
Severus ruled Rome from 193-211 AD, founded the Severan dynasty, defeated the Parthians, and expanded the empire. His campaigns in Africa and Britain were large-scale and costly, which contributed in part to Rome's future financial problems. Severus was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta; Caracalla subsequently killed his brother.
Caracalla ruled until 217 AD, when he was killed by his bodyguard. It was during the reign of Caracalla that almost all the people of the empire received citizenship. It was believed that the purpose of issuing citizenship to all residents was an attempt to increase tax revenues, there were more people who were taxed by the central government.
The Severan dynasty was continued by Julia Maesa (Empress), who ruled until the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 AD, which in turn plunged the empire into chaos, a period known as the Crisis of the Third Century (lasting from 235-284 AD).
Disintegration of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western
This period is also known as the Imperial Crisis. It was characterized by constant civil war as various warlords fought for control of the empire. The crisis further contributed to widespread social unrest, economic instability (notably the devaluation of the Roman currency during this period), and finally the dissolution of the empire, which split into three separate regions.
The empire was reunited under the rule of Aurelian (270-275 AD), his policies were subsequently developed and improved by Diocletian, who founded the Tetrarchy (quaternity) to maintain order throughout the empire.
Despite this, the empire was so vast that Diocletian was forced to divide it in half in 285 AD to facilitate more efficient administration. He created the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire).
Because the main reason The Imperial Crisis was due to the lack of clarity in the policies of the empire; Diocletian decreed that successors must be chosen and approved by the emperor in advance.
His two successors were generals Maxentius and Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily stepped down from power in 305 AD, and the tetrarchy became vying regions of the empire for dominance. After the death of Diocletian in 311 AD. Maxentius and Constantine plunged the empire into civil war again.
Constantine and Christianity
In 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of Milva Bridge and became the sole emperor of the Western and Eastern Empires (reigned 306-337 AD).
Believing that Jesus Christ had helped bring about the victory, Constantine passed a series of laws, such as the Law of Milan (317 AD), which provided for religious tolerance and tolerance of faith, particularly Christianity.
Constantine demanded a special attitude towards God, Jesus Christ. At the First Council of Nicaea (325 CE), Constantine insisted on accepting the divinity of Jesus and collecting all Christian manuscripts to form the book known today as the Bible.
Constantine stabilized the empire and currency, reformed the army, and founded a city on the site of the former Byzantine city called "New Rome", which would eventually become known as Constantinople (currently Istanbul).
Constantine became known as Constantine the Great because of his religious, cultural achievements and political reforms, large-scale construction projects, and talent as a military commander. After his death, the sons inherited the empire and, quite quickly, came into conflict with each other, which threatened to destroy everything that Constantine had done.
His three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constance divided the Roman Empire among themselves, but soon came to struggle for power. During these conflicts, Constantine II and Constance were killed. Constantius II died later, naming his cousin Julian as his successor and heir. Emperor Julian ruled for only two years (361-363 AD) and tried to return Rome to its former greatness through a series of reforms aimed at improving the efficiency of government.
As a Neoplatonic philosopher, Julian rejected Christianity and blamed Constantine's faith and adherence to Christianity as the reason for the decline of the empire. Having officially proclaimed a policy of religious tolerance, Julian systematically removed Christians from influential government positions, prohibited the teaching, spread of religion and military service for Christian believers. His death, during the military campaign against the Persians, ended the dynasty of Constantine. Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome and became known as “Julian the Apostate” for his opposition to Christianity.
Next was the brief reign of Jovian, who proclaimed Christianity as the dominant faith of the empire and repealed various decrees of Julian, after which he transferred the throne to Theodosius I. Theodosius I (379-395 AD) restored the religious reforms of Constantine. Pagan worship was banned throughout the empire, and pagan temples were converted into Christian churches.
It was at this time that the famous Plato Academy was closed by the decree of Theodosius. Many of the reforms were unpopular both with the Roman aristocracy and with ordinary people adhering to the traditional values of pagan practice.
The unity of social duties and religious beliefs that paganism provided was destroyed by the institution of religion, which removed the gods from the earth and human society and proclaimed only one God who ruled from heaven.
Fall of the Roman Empire
During the period 376-382 AD. Rome fought against the invasion of the Goths, a period known as the Gothic Wars. At the Battle of Adrianople, on August 9, 378 AD, the Roman Emperor Valens was defeated, an event considered by historians to be a key event in contributing to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.
Various theories have been put forward regarding the reasons for the fall of the empire, but even today there is no consensus as to what these factors were. Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, famously argued that Christianity played a key role in the new religion undermining the social mores of the empire, which had been shaped by paganism.
The theory that Christianity was the primary cause of the fall of the empire had been discussed long before Gibbon, however, there was another view that it was primarily paganism and pagan practices that led to the fall of Rome.
Other factors are also recalled, ranging from the corruption of the ruling elite to the immensity of the empire, as well as the growing power of the Germanic tribes and their constant attacks on Rome. The Roman military could no longer effectively defend the borders, just as once upon a time the government could not fully collect taxes in the provinces. Also the arrival of the Visigoths into the empire in the third century AD. and their rebellions were recognized as a contributing factor to the decline.
The Western Roman Empire officially ceased to exist on September 4, 476 AD, when Emperor Romulus Augustus was overthrown by the Germanic King Odoac. The Eastern Roman Empire transformed into the Byzantine Empire and lasted until 1453 AD.
Legacy of the Roman Empire
The inventions and innovations that were created by the Roman Empire profoundly changed the lives of ancient people and continue to exist in cultures around the world. Skills in building roads and buildings, indoor plumbing, aqueducts, and even quick-drying cement were invented or perfected by the Romans. The calendar used in the West is derived from that created by Julius Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in Roman languages) and months of the year also come from Rome.
Housing estates (known as "insula"), public toilets, locks and keys, newspapers, even socks, were developed by the Romans, as were shoes, the postal system (improved and adopted from the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying glass and the genre of satire in literature.
During the empire, significant discoveries were made in the fields of medicine, law, religion, government and warfare, and the Romans were able to borrow and improve upon those inventions or concepts that they found among the populations of the regions they conquered. It's safe to say that the Roman Empire left a lasting legacy that continues to influence the way people live even today.
By the fatal force of things, Rome was transformed from a republic into a monarchy (empire). When the Roman civil community subjugated half the world, its structure ceased to correspond to its position. Both the people's assembly, consisting of the Roman mob, and the Senate, as an organ of the Roman aristocracy, expressed the will of one or another part of the capital's population, but not the will of the entire state. The state economy assumed the abnormal character of exploitation of the entire state in favor of the capital. Nor did the Gracchi attempt to convey political power comitia, nor a similar attempt by Sulla with the Senate had, and could not have succeeded. There was only one way to maintain a republic in Rome - the establishment of representative government - but the idea of representation was alien ancient world, Another story was also reflected here, the law by virtue of which the predominance of foreign policy over domestic policy inevitably leads to autocracy. The vitality of Rome was expressed in the fact that, when its structure showed inconsistency with the newly discovered tasks, it created a new body for new needs, which gave it the opportunity to continue the great work of unifying peoples and cultures. This body was the empire, which restored the balance between Rome and the provinces, more than the comitia or the senate, capable of directing military actions and complex diplomatic relations. The idea of autocracy, vaguely expressed already in the activities of Marius, Sulla and Pompey, became conscious of itself in Julius Caesar and was finally implemented by Augustus.
Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus ("Augustus of Prima Porta"). 1st century statue according to R.H.
But the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire did not take place all at once, but through a series of gradual, more or less legal changes. In this regard, the entire five-century history of the Roman Empire can be divided into two periods - before And after Diocletian. The first period embraces the first three centuries of the Christian era; the empire of this time was not a monarchy, but a special kind republican magistracy, similar to a consulate or tribunate, and had a special name Principate Roman emperor, or princeps, was an official elected for life, and only this lifetime distinguished him from the previous republican magistrates. Moreover, his power itself represented a combination of two purely republican magistrates: proconsulate and the tribunate. He was limited in his sovereignty by the dualism of institutions, since next to him stood the Senate: under the authority of the Roman emperor at that time there were only those provinces that lay on the borders or were in martial law - in the peaceful provinces the Senate ruled. A distinctive feature of the principate is the formal absence of heredity; like any magistracy, it was awarded to each person according to the people's choice (in fact, the people played an insignificant role here - the choice depended on the Senate, and even more often on the army).
This was the state-legal basis of the Roman Principate; if in practice the emperor was the absolute master of the state, if in fact the senate was his obedient instrument, and power for the most part passed from father to son, then in theory there was neither sovereignty nor heredity. And this limited power did not develop in Rome immediately, but gradually, during the reign of Augustus and Tiberius. From Caligula to Diocletian, this theoretical basis imperial power is not expanding, although in fact the principate, relying on the army and the masses, little by little penetrates into all branches of government. The character of the Roman Empire changed radically in the second period - in the last two centuries of its existence (284 - 476). To free it from the influence of soldiers and the Senate, Diocletian externally gave it the character of autocracy and, through an artificial form of adoption, initiated heredity, and Constantine, by introducing a Christian element into it, converted it into a monarchy “by the grace of God.”
Roman Emperor Marcus Ulpius Trajan (98-117)
Despite the weakness or baseness of their individual members, the first four dynasties (Julia 31 BC - 68 AD, Flavia 68 - 96, Trajan 98 - 117, Hadrian 117 - 138 gg., Antonina 138 - 192, Severus 193 - 235), in general, satisfied the needs by which the empire was called to life. The main attention of the best of them was directed in domestic policy to maintaining the power of Rome in the conquered countries, to the pacification and Romanization of the provinces, and in foreign policy - to protecting the borders from the invasion of barbarians. Augustus did especially a lot in both respects: by establishing the “Roman peace” (pax romana), building roads, and strictly supervising the governors, he contributed greatly to the economic and cultural development of the provinces, and by the conquest of the Danube countries and the fight against the Germans - to the security of the borders. Tiberius also showed the same attention to the needs of the provinces. The Flavians restored order in the empire, shaken by the previous turmoil, completed the conquest of Palestine, pacified the uprising of the Gauls and Germans, and Romanized Britain, just as Augustus Romanized Gaul. Trajan Romanized the Danube region, successfully fought against the Dacians and Parthians, and Hadrian, on the contrary, focused his attention entirely on matters of internal administration, constantly toured the provinces, monitored the activities of the administration and improved the bureaucracy, which was started by Claudius. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was spent in the defense of the Roman Empire against the Parthians and Germans and in the pacification of Syria. after the unrest, he restored order and completed the Romanization of Britain, and his son, the cruel Caracalla, completed the great work begun by Caesar - he granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the provinces.
Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138)
The first half of the 3rd century is a transitional era between the first and second periods in the history of the Roman Empire; The unrest of this time sharply revealed the instability of the entire state system. The selectivity of the Principate made him a plaything in the hands of the army from which he came. With the death of Commodus (192 AD), the rule of soldiers begins, who, for profit or by whim, install and overthrow emperors. Moreover, the predominance of provincial troops over the Roman ones is becoming increasingly evident, which is explained by the decline in militancy and political spirit among the Romans and Italians. This advantage was revealed in the fact that, starting with Septimius Severus, only provincials, non-Romans, were placed on the throne. In connection with this phenomenon, there is something else - the weakening of the unity of the Roman Empire, the desire of the provinces for supremacy in the state or for independence. In the middle of the 3rd century. Rome finally falls under the influence of the provinces: each provincial army nominates its own emperor, the number of emperors reaches 20 - the so-called “era of 30 tyrants” begins. The consequence of this state of affairs was a terrible turmoil, which external enemies were not slow to take advantage of: the Persians, Goths, Allemans attacked the empire from all sides, defeated the troops, plundered cities and villages, and each province, with its own emperor at its head, acted at its own peril and in their own interests, without caring at all about the whole. The great commander Aurelian managed in 270 to briefly restore the unity of the Roman Empire and repel external enemies, but the need for extensive reform to preserve the state was obvious.
Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193-211). Antique bust from the Munich Glyptothek
Periodization of the history of the Roman Empire
The periodization of the history of the Roman Empire varies depending on the approach. Thus, when considering the state-legal structure, two main stages are usually distinguished:
Having thus determined his attitude towards the Senate, Octavian resigned his title as commander-in-chief for life and only at the insistence of the Senate again accepted this power for a period of 10 years, after which it was extended for the same period. With proconsular power, he gradually united the power of other republican magistrates - tribunic power (from AD), the power of the censor (praefectura morum) and the chief pontiff. His power thus had a dual character: it consisted of a republican magistracy in relation to the Romans and a military imperium in relation to the provinces. Octavian was, so to speak, president of the Senate and emperor in one person. Both of these elements merged in the honorary title of Augustus - “revered” - which was assigned to him by the Senate in the city. This title also contains a religious connotation.
However, in this regard, Augustus showed great moderation. He allowed the sixth month to be named after him, but did not want to allow his deification in Rome, content with only the designation divi filius (“son of the divine Julius”). Only outside Rome did he allow temples to be built in honor of him, and then only in conjunction with Rome (Roma et Augustus), and to establish a special priestly college - the Augustals. The power of Augustus differs so significantly from the power of subsequent emperors that it is designated in history by a special term - the principate. The nature of the principate as a dualistic power appears especially clearly when considering Augustus’s relationship with the Senate. Gaius Julius Caesar showed patronizing arrogance and some disdain towards the Senate. Augustus not only restored the Senate and helped many individual senators lead a lifestyle befitting their high position - he directly shared power with the Senate. All provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. The first category included all the finally pacified regions - their rulers, with the rank of proconsuls, were still appointed by lot in the Senate and remained under its control, but had only civil power and did not have troops at their disposal. The provinces in which troops were stationed and where war could be fought were left under the direct authority of Augustus and the legates appointed by him, with the rank of propraetors.
In accordance with this, the financial administration of the empire was also divided: the aerarium (treasury) remained under the authority of the Senate, but along with it, the imperial treasury (fiscus) arose, into which revenues from the imperial provinces went. Augustus’s attitude towards the national assembly was simpler. The comitia formally exist under Augustus, but their electoral power passes to the emperor, legally - half, in fact - entirely. The judicial power of the comitia belongs to the judicial institutions or to the emperor, as the representative of the tribunate, and their legislative activity belongs to the Senate. The extent to which the comitia lost their significance under Augustus is evident from the fact that they quietly disappeared under his successor, leaving a trace only in the theory of popular supremacy as the basis of imperial power - a theory that outlived the Roman and Byzantine Empire and passed, together with Roman law, to the Middle Ages.
Augustus's domestic policy was conservative-national in nature. Caesar gave the provincials wide access to Rome. Augustus took care to admit only completely benign elements into citizenship and into the Senate. For Caesar, and especially for Mark Antony, granting citizenship rights was a source of income. But Augustus, in his own words, was rather ready to allow “the treasury to suffer damage rather than lower the honor of Roman citizenship,” and according to this, he even took away from many the right of Roman citizenship that had been previously granted to them. This policy gave rise to new legislative measures for the manumission of slaves, which had previously been left entirely at the discretion of the master. “Complete freedom” (magna et justa libertas), with which the right of citizenship was still associated, according to Augustan law could be granted only under certain conditions and under the control of a special commission of senators and equestrians. If these conditions were not met, liberation was given only by the Latin right of citizenship, and slaves, subjected to disgraceful punishments, fell only into the category of provincial subjects.
Augustus made sure that the number of citizens was known, and renewed the census, which had almost fallen into disuse. In the city, there were 4,063,000 citizens capable of bearing arms, and 19 years later - 4,163,000. Augustus retained the deep-rooted custom of supporting impoverished citizens at state expense and sending citizens to colonies. But the subject of his special concerns was Rome itself - its improvement and decoration. He also wanted to revive the spiritual strength of the people, a strong family life and simplicity of morals. He restored temples that had fallen into disrepair and issued laws to put a limit to loose morals, to encourage marriage and the raising of children (Leges Juliae and Papia Poppeae, 9 AD). Special tax privileges were given to those who had three sons (jus trium liberorum).
Under him, a sharp turn took place in the fate of the provinces: from the estates of Rome they became parts of the state body (membra partesque imperii). The proconsuls, who were previously sent to the province for feeding (i.e., administration), are now assigned a certain salary and their period of stay in the province is extended. Previously, the provinces were only the subject of extortions in favor of Rome. Now, on the contrary, they are given subsidies from Rome. Augustus rebuilds provincial cities, pays off their debts, and comes to their aid in times of disaster. The state administration is still in its infancy - the emperor has little means to collect information about the situation in the provinces and therefore considers it necessary to personally become acquainted with the state of affairs. Augustus visited all the provinces except Africa and Sardinia, and spent many years traveling around them. He arranged a postal service for the needs of the administration - a column was placed in the center of the empire (at the Forum), from which distances were calculated along the numerous roads leading from Rome to the outskirts.
The Republic did not know a standing army - the soldiers swore allegiance to the commander who called them under the banner for a year, and later - “until the end of the campaign.” From Augustus the power of the commander-in-chief becomes lifelong, the army becomes permanent. Military service is determined at 20 years, after which the “veteran” receives the right to honorable leave and to be provided with money or land. Troops not needed within the state are stationed along the borders. In Rome there is a selected detachment of 6,000 people, recruited from Roman citizens (praetorians), 3,000 praetorians are located in Italy. The remaining troops are stationed along the borders. Of the huge number of legions formed during the civil wars, Augustus retained 25 (3 died during the defeat of Varus). Of these, there were 8 legions in upper and lower Germany (regions on the left bank of the Rhine), 6 in the Danube regions, 4 in Syria, 2 in Egypt and Africa, and 3 in Spain. Each legion consisted of 5,000 soldiers. A military dictatorship, no longer fitting within the framework of republican institutions and not limited to the provinces, is established in Rome - in front of it the Senate loses its governmental significance and the people's assembly completely disappears. The place of comitia is taken by legions - they serve as an instrument of power, but they are always ready to be a source of power for those whom they favor.
 Augustus closed the third concentric circle of Roman rule in the south. Egypt, pressed by Syria, held on to Rome and thereby avoided annexation by Syria, and then maintained independence thanks to its queen Cleopatra, who managed to charm Caesar and Mark Antony. The aged queen failed to achieve the same in relation to the cold-blooded Augustus, and Egypt became a Roman province. Likewise, in the western part of North Africa, Roman rule was finally established under Augustus, who conquered Mauritania (Morocco) and gave it to the Numidian king Yuba, and annexed Numidia to the province of Africa. Roman pickets protected culturally occupied areas from desert nomads along the entire line from Morocco to Cyrenaica on the borders of Egypt. Julio-Claudian dynasty: heirs of Augustus (14-69)Flaws state system, created by Augustus, were discovered immediately after his death. He left unresolved the conflict of interests and rights between his adopted son Tiberius and his own grandson, a worthless youth, imprisoned on the island by him. Tiberius (14-37), based on his merits, intelligence and experience, had the right to first place in the state. He did not want to be a despot: rejecting the title of master (dominus), with which flatterers addressed him, he said that he was a master only for slaves, for provincials - emperor, for citizens - citizen. The provinces found in him, as his haters themselves admitted, a caring and efficient ruler - it was not for nothing that he told his proconsuls that a good shepherd shears sheep, but does not skin them. But in Rome the Senate stood before him, full of republican traditions and memories of past greatness, and relations between the emperor and the Senate were soon spoiled by flatterers and informers. Accidents and tragic entanglements in the family of Tiberius embittered the emperor, and then began the bloody drama of political trials, the “unholy war (impia bella) in the Senate,” so passionately and artistically depicted in the immortal work of Tacitus, who branded the monstrous old man with shame on the island of Capri. In place of Tiberius, whose last minutes are unknown to us exactly, the son of his nephew, the popular and mourned by all Germanicus, was proclaimed - Caligula (37-41), a rather handsome young man, but soon mad with power and reaching delusions of grandeur and frenzied cruelty. The sword of the praetorian tribune put an end to the life of this madman, who intended to place his statue in the Jerusalem temple to be worshiped with Jehovah. The Senate breathed freely and dreamed of a republic, but the Praetorians gave it a new emperor in the person of Claudius (41 - 54), the brother of Germanicus. Claudius was practically a toy in the hands of his two wives - Messalina and Agrippina - who covered the Roman woman of that time with shame. His image, however, is distorted by political satire, and under Claudius (not without his participation) both the external and internal development of the empire continued. Claudius was born in Lyon and therefore especially took the interests of Gaul and the Gauls to heart: in the Senate he personally defended the petition of the inhabitants of northern Gaul, who asked to make honorary positions in Rome available to them. Claudius converted the kingdom of Cotys into the province of Thrace in 46, and made Mauretania a Roman province. Under him, the military occupation of Britain took place, which was finally conquered by Agricola. Intrigues, and perhaps even crimes, of Agrippina opened the way to power for her son, Nero (54 - 68). And in this case, as almost always in the first two centuries of the empire, the principle of heredity brought harm to it. There was a complete discrepancy between the personal character and tastes of the young Nero and his position in the state. As a result of Nero's life, a military rebellion broke out; the emperor committed suicide, and in the subsequent year of the civil war, three emperors were replaced and died - Galba, Otho, Vitellius. Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
Power finally went to the commander-in-chief in the war against the rebel Jews, Vespasian. In the person of Vespasian (70 - 79), the empire received the organizer it needed after internal unrest and uprisings. He suppressed the Batavian uprising, settled relations with the Senate and put the state economy in order, being himself an example of ancient Roman simplicity of morals. In the person of his son, Titus (79 - 81), the destroyer of Jerusalem, the imperial power surrounded itself with an aura of philanthropy, and Vespasian's youngest son, Domitian (81 - 96), again served as confirmation that the principle of heredity did not bring happiness to Rome. Domitian imitated Tiberius, fought on the Rhine and Danube, although not always successfully, was at enmity with the Senate and died as a result of a conspiracy. Five Good Emperors - Antonines (96-180)
Roman Empire under Trajan The consequence of this conspiracy was the calling to power not of a general, but of a man from among the Senate, Nerva (96 - 98), who, having adopted Ulpius Trajan (98 - 117), gave Rome one of its best emperors. Trajan was from Spain; his rise is a significant sign of the social process taking place in the empire. After the rule of two patrician families, the Julius and the Claudii, the plebeian Galba appears on the Roman throne, then the emperors from the municipalities of Italy and, finally, a provincial from Spain. Trajan reveals a series of emperors who made the second century the best era of the empire: all of them - Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), Marcus Aurelius (161-180) - were of provincial origin (Spanish, except Antoninus, who was from southern Gaul); they all owe their rise to the adoption of their predecessor. Trajan became famous as a commander, and the empire reached its greatest extent under him. Trajan expanded the borders of the empire to the north, where Dacia was conquered and colonized, from the Carpathians to the Dniester, and to the east, where four provinces were formed: Armenia (minor - the upper reaches of the Euphrates). Mesopotamia (lower Euphrates), Assyria (Tigris region) and Arabia (southeast of Palestine). This was done not so much for conquest purposes, but in order to push barbarian tribes and desert nomads away from the empire, which threatened it with constant invasion. This is evident from the careful care with which Trajan and his successor Hadrian, to strengthen the borders, poured huge ramparts, with stone bastions and towers, the remains of which have survived to this day - in the north. England, in Moldavia (Trajan's Val), limes (Pfahlgraben) from the Rhine (in northern Nassau) through the Main and southern Germany to the Danube. The peace-loving Adrian took up reforms in the administration and in the field of law. Like Augustus, Hadrian spent many years visiting the provinces; he did not disdain to take on the position of archon in Athens and personally drew up a project for city government for them. Moving with the times, he was more enlightened than Augustus, and stood at the level of contemporary education, which then reached its apogee. Just as Hadrian, with his financial reforms, earned the nickname “enricher of the world,” so his successor Antoninus was nicknamed “the father of the human race” for his care of provinces subject to disasters. The highest place in the ranks of the Caesars is occupied by Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed the philosopher; we can judge him by more than just epithets - we know his thoughts and plans in his own presentation. How great was the progress of political thought that took place in the best people of R. since the fall of the republic, this is most clearly evidenced by his significant words, “I carried in my soul the image of a free state in which everything is governed on the basis of laws that are equal for all and equal for all everyone's rights." But even this philosopher on the throne had to experience for himself that the power of the Roman emperor was a personal military dictatorship; He was to spend many years in a defensive war on the Danube, where he died. After four emperors who reigned in adulthood, the throne again went, by right of inheritance, to a young man, and again to an unworthy one. Having left control of the state to his favorites, Commodus (180-193), like Nero, craved laurels not on the battlefield, but in the circus and amphitheater: but his tastes were not artistic, like Nero’s, but gladiatorial. He died at the hands of the conspirators. Severan Dynasty (193-235)Neither the protege of the conspirators, Prefect Pertinax, nor the senator Didius Julian, who bought the purple from the Praetorians for enormous money, retained power; The Illyrian legions became jealous of their comrades and proclaimed their commander, Septimius Severus, emperor. Septimius was from Leptis in Africa; in his pronunciation one could hear the African, just as in the speech of Adrian - the Spaniard. His rise marks the success of Roman culture in Africa. The traditions of the Punians were still alive here, strangely merging with the Roman ones. If the finely educated Hadrian restored the tomb of Epaminondas, then Septimius, as legend says, built the mausoleum of Hannibal. But the Punic now fought for Rome. The neighbors of Rome again felt the heavy hand of the victorious emperor; Roman eagles circled the borders from Babylon on the Euphrates and Ctesiphon on the Tigris to York in the far north, where Septimius died in 211. Septimius Severus, protege of the legions, was the first soldier on the throne of the Caesars. The brute energy that he brought with him from his African homeland degenerated into savagery in his son Caracalla, who seized autocracy by murdering his brother. Caracalla showed his African sympathies even more clearly by placing statues of Hannibal everywhere. Rome owes him, however, its magnificent baths (The Baths of Caracalla). Like his father, he tirelessly defended Roman lands on two fronts - on the Rhine and on the Euphrates. His unbridled behavior sparked a conspiracy among the military around him, of which he fell victim. Issues of law were of such importance in Rome at that time that it was to the soldier Caracalla that Rome owed one of its greatest civil feats - granting all provincials the right of Roman citizenship. That this was not just a fiscal measure is clear from the benefits granted to the Egyptians. Since the conquest of Cleopatra's kingdom by Augustus, this country has been in a particularly disenfranchised position. Septimius Severus returned self-government to Alexandria, and Caracalla not only granted Alexandrians the right to hold public office in Rome, but also introduced an Egyptian to the Senate for the first time. The rise of the Punes to the throne of the Caesars entailed the calling to power of their fellow tribesmen from Syria. The sister of Caracalla's widow, Mesa, succeeded in removing Caracalla's murderer from the throne and replacing him with her grandson, known in history by the Semitic name Elagabalus Heliogabalus: this was the name of the Syrian sun deity. His accession represents a strange episode in the history of Roman emperors: it was the establishment of an eastern theocracy in Rome. But a priest could not be imagined at the head of the Roman legions, and Heliogabalus was soon replaced by his cousin, Alexander Severus. The accession of the Sassanids in place of the Parthian kings and the resulting religious and national renewal of the Persian east forced the young emperor to spend many years on campaigns; but how important the religious element was for him is evidenced by his deity (Lararium), which contained images of all the gods who were worshiped within the empire, including Christ. Alexander Sever died near Mainz as a victim of soldier's self-will. Crisis of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century (235-284)Then an event occurred that showed to what extent the process of assimilation of Roman and provincial elements was rapidly taking place in the troops, the most vital element of the then Rome, and how close the hour of barbarian domination over Rome was. The legions proclaimed Emperor Maximin, the son of a Goth and an Alan, who was a shepherd and owed his rapid military career to his heroic physique and courage. This premature triumph of northern barbarism caused a reaction in Africa, where the proconsul Gordian was proclaimed emperor. After bloody clashes, power remained in the hands of the young man, the grandson of Gordian. While he was successfully repelling the Persians in the east, he was overthrown by another barbarian in the Roman military service- Philip the Arab, the son of a robber sheikh in the Syro-Arabian desert. This Semite was destined to magnificently celebrate the millennium of Rome in 248, but he did not reign for long: his legate, Decius, was forced by soldiers to take power from him. Decius was of Roman origin, but his family had long been exiled to Pannonia, where he was born. Under Decius, two new enemies discovered their strength, undermining the Roman Empire - the Goths, who invaded Thrace from across the Danube, and Christianity. Decius directed his energy against them, but his death in the battle with the Goths the very next year (251) saved the Christians from his cruel edicts. Power was seized by his comrade, Valerian, who accepted his son Gallienus as co-ruler: Valerian died in captivity of the Persians, and Gallienus held out until 268. The Roman Empire was already so shaken that entire regions were separated from it under the autonomous control of local commanders-in-chief (for example, Gaul and the kingdom of Palmyra in the East). The main stronghold of Rome at this time were generals of Illyrian origin: where the danger from the Goths forced the defenders of Rome to rally, the most capable commanders and administrators were elected one after another, at a meeting of commanders: Claudius II, Aurelian, Probus and Carus. Aurelian conquered Gaul and the kingdom of Zenobia and restored the former borders of the empire; He also surrounded Rome with a new wall, which had long since grown out of the framework of the walls of Servius Tullius and became an open, defenseless city. All these proteges of the legions soon died at the hands of indignant soldiers: Probus, for example, because, caring for the welfare of his native province, he forced the soldiers to plant vineyards on the Rhine and Danube. Tetrarchy and dominance (285-324)Finally, by decision of the officers in Chalcedon, in 285, Diocletian was enthroned, worthily completing the series of pagan emperors of Rome. Diocletian's transformations completely changed the character and forms of the Roman Empire: they summed up the previous historical process and laid the foundation for a new political order. Diocletian consigns the Augustan Principate to the archives of history and creates a Roman-Byzantine autocracy. This Dalmatian, having put on the crown of the eastern kings, finally dethroned royal Rome. Within the chronological framework of the history of the emperors outlined above, the greatest historical revolution of a cultural nature gradually took place: the provinces conquered Rome. In the state sphere, this is expressed by the disappearance of dualism in the person of the sovereign, who, in the organization of Augustus, was a princeps for the Romans, and an emperor for the provincials. This dualism is gradually being lost, and the military power of the emperor absorbs the civil republican magistracy of the principate. While the tradition of Rome was still alive, the idea of the principate persisted; but when, at the end of the third century, the imperial power fell to an African, the military element in the power of the emperor completely supplanted the Roman heritage. At the same time, the frequent intrusion into public life of the Roman legions, which invested their commanders with imperial power, humiliated this power, made it accessible to every ambitious person and deprived it of strength and duration. The vastness of the empire and the simultaneous wars along its entire border did not allow the emperor to concentrate all military forces under his direct command; legions at the other end of the empire could freely proclaim their favorite emperor in order to receive the usual “grant” of money from him. This prompted Diocletian to reorganize imperial power on the basis of collegiality and hierarchy. Diocletian's reformsTetrarchyThe emperor, in the rank of Augustus, received a companion in another Augustus, who ruled the other half of the empire; under each of these Augustus there was a Caesar, who was the co-ruler and governor of his Augustus. This decentralization of imperial power gave it the opportunity to directly manifest itself in four points of the empire, and the hierarchical system in the relations between the Caesars and Augusti united their interests and gave a legal outlet to the ambitions of the commanders-in-chief. Diocletian, as the elder Augustus, chose Nicomedia in Asia Minor as his residence, the second Augustus (Maximinian Marcus Aurelius Valerius) - Milan. Rome not only ceased to be the center of imperial power, but this center moved away from it and was moved to the east; Rome did not even retain second place in the empire and had to cede it to the city of the Insubrians it had once defeated - Milan. The new government moved away from Rome not only topographically: it became even more alien to it in spirit. The title of master (dominus), which had previously been used by slaves in relation to their masters, became the official title of the emperor; the words sacer and saciatissimus - most sacred - became the official epithets of his power; kneeling replaced military honor: the golden robe studded with precious stones and the white diadem of the emperor indicated that the character of the new government was more strongly influenced by the influence of neighboring Persia than by the tradition of the Roman Principate. SenateThe disappearance of state dualism associated with the concept of the principate was also accompanied by a change in the position and character of the Senate. The Principate, as the lifelong presidency of the Senate, although it represented a certain contrast to the Senate, was at the same time maintained by the Senate. Meanwhile, the Roman Senate gradually ceased to be what it had been before. He was once a corporation serving the aristocracy of the city of Rome and always resented the tide of elements alien to him; once Senator Appius Claudius swore to stab the first Latin who dared to enter the Senate; under Caesar, Cicero and his friends made jokes at the senators from Gaul, and when at the beginning of the 3rd century the Egyptian Keraunos entered the Roman Senate (history has preserved his name), there was no one in Rome to be indignant. It couldn't be any other way. The richest of the provincials began to move to Rome long ago, buying up palaces, gardens and estates of the impoverished Roman aristocracy. Already under Augustus, the price of real estate in Italy, as a result, rose significantly. This new aristocracy began to fill the Senate. The time came when the Senate began to be called “the beauty of all provinces,” “the color of the whole world,” “the color of the human race.” From an institution that under Tiberius constituted a counterweight to imperial power, the Senate became imperial. This aristocratic institution finally underwent a transformation in a bureaucratic spirit - it broke up into classes and ranks, marked by ranks (illiustres, spectabiles, clarissimi, etc.). Finally, it split into two - the Roman and Constantinople Senate: but this division was no longer significant for the empire, since the state significance of the Senate passed to another institution - the council of the sovereign or consistory. AdministrationEven more characteristic of the Roman Empire than the history of the Senate is the process that took place in the field of administration. Under the influence of imperial power, a new type state, to replace the city power - city government, which was Republican Rome. This goal is achieved by bureaucratizing management, replacing the magistrate with an official. The magistrate was a citizen invested with power for a certain period and carrying out his duties as an honorary position. He had a well-known staff of bailiffs, scribes (apparitores) and servants. These were people he invited or even just his slaves and freedmen. Such magistrates are gradually being replaced in the empire by people who are in the constant service of the emperor, receiving a certain salary from him and going through a certain career, in a hierarchical order. The beginning of the coup dates back to the time of Augustus, who appointed salaries to the proconsuls and propraetors. In particular, Adrian did a lot to develop and improve the administration in the empire; under him, the bureaucratization of the court of the emperor, who previously ruled his provinces through freedmen, took place; Hadrian raised his courtiers to the level of state dignitaries. The number of servants of the sovereign is gradually growing: accordingly, the number of their ranks is increasing and a hierarchical system of management is developing, finally reaching the completeness and complexity that it represents in the “State Calendar of Ranks and Titles of the Empire” - Notitia dignitatum. As the bureaucratic apparatus develops, the entire appearance of the country changes: it becomes more monotonous, smoother. At the beginning of the empire, all the provinces, in relation to government, differ sharply from Italy and present great diversity among themselves; the same diversity is noticed within each province; it includes autonomous, privileged and subject cities, sometimes vassal kingdoms or semi-wild tribes that have preserved their primitive system. Little by little, these differences are blurred and under Diocletian, partly they are revealed, and partly a radical revolution is carried out, similar to that which was committed French revolution 1789, which replaced the provinces, with their historical, national and topographical individuality, with monotonous administrative units - departments. Transforming the administration of the Roman Empire, Diocletian divides it into 12 dioceses under the control of individual vicars, that is, the emperor's governors; each diocese is divided into smaller provinces than before (ranging from 4 to 12, for a total of 101), under the control of officials of different names - correctores, consulares, praesides, etc. As a result of this bureaucratization, the former dualism between Italy and provinces; Italy itself is divided into administrative units, and from Roman land (ager romanus) becomes a simple province. Only Rome still remains outside this administrative network, which is very significant for its future fate. The bureaucratization of power is also closely related to its centralization. This centralization is especially interesting to observe in the field of legal proceedings. In a republican administration, the praetor independently creates the court; he is not subject to appeal and, using the right to issue an edict, he himself establishes the norms that he intends to adhere to in court. At the end of the historical process we are considering, an appeal is established from the praetor's court to the emperor, who distributes complaints, according to the nature of the cases, among his prefects. Thus the imperial power actually takes over the judicial power; but it also appropriates to itself the very creativity of law that the court applies to life. After the abolition of the comitia, legislative power passed to the Senate, but next to it the emperor issued his orders; over time, he arrogated to himself the power to make laws; Only the form of publishing them through a rescript from the emperor to the Senate has been preserved from antiquity. In this establishment of monarchical absolutism, in this strengthening of centralization and bureaucracy, one cannot help but see the triumph of the provinces over Rome and, at the same time, the creative power of the Roman spirit in the field of public administration. RightThe same triumph of the conquered and the same creativity of the R. spirit can be noted in the field of law. In ancient Rome, law had a strictly national character: it was the exclusive property of some “quirites,” that is, Roman citizens, and therefore was called quirite. Nonresidents were tried in Rome by the praetor “for foreigners” (peregrinus); the same system was then applied to the provincials, of whom the Roman praetor became the supreme judge. The praetors thus became the creators of a new law - the law not of the Roman people, but of peoples in general (jus gentium). In creating this law, Roman jurists discovered the general principles of law, the same for all peoples, and began to study them and be guided by them. At the same time, under the influence of the Greek philosophical schools, especially the Stoic one, they rose to the consciousness of natural law (jus naturale), emanating from reason, from that “higher law”, which, in the words of Cicero, arose “before the dawn of time, before the existence of any or the written law or constitution of any state.” Praetorial law became the bearer of the principles of reason and justice (aequitas), as opposed to the literal interpretation and routine of Quirite law. The city praetor (urbanus) could not remain outside the influence of praetorian law, which became synonymous with natural law and natural reason. Obliged to “come to the aid of civil law, supplement it and correct it for the sake of public benefit,” he began to imbue himself with the principles of the law of peoples, and, finally, the law of provincial praetors - jus honorarium - became “the living voice of Roman law.” This was the time of its heyday, the era of the great jurists of the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaius, Papinian, Paul, Ulpian and Modestinus, which lasted until Alexander Severus and gave Roman law that strength, depth and subtlety of thought that prompted peoples to see in it “written reason” , and the great mathematician and lawyer, Leibniz - compare it with mathematics. Roman idealsJust as the “strict” law (jus strictum) of the Romans, under the influence of the law of peoples, is imbued with the idea of universal reason and justice, in the Roman Empire the meaning of Rome and the idea of Roman dominion are inspired. Obeying the wild instinct of the people, greedy for land and booty, the Romans of the Republic did not need to justify their conquests. Livy also finds it completely natural for a people descended from Mars to conquer other nations, and invites the latter to obediently demolish Roman power. But already under Augustus, Virgil, reminding his fellow citizens that their purpose is to rule over peoples (tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento), gives this rule a moral purpose - to establish peace and spare the conquered (parcere subjectis). The idea of the Roman peace (pax romana) henceforth became the motto of Roman rule. It is exalted by Pliny, glorified by Plutarch, calling Rome “an anchor that forever sheltered in the harbor a world long overwhelmed and wandering without a helmsman.” Comparing the power of Rome to cement, the Greek moralist sees the significance of Rome in the fact that it organized a pan-human society amidst the fierce struggle of people and nations. This same idea of the Roman world was given official expression by Emperor Trajan in the inscription on the temple he erected on the Euphrates, when the border of the empire was again pushed back to this river. But the importance of Rome soon rose even higher. Bringing peace among the peoples, Rome called them to civil order and the benefits of civilization, giving them wide scope and without violating their individuality. He ruled, according to the poet, “not only with weapons, but with laws.” Moreover, he gradually called on all peoples to participate in power. The highest praise of the Romans and a worthy assessment of their best emperor lies in the wonderful words with which the Greek orator, Aristides, addressed Marcus Aurelius and his comrade Verus: “With you, everything is open to everyone. Anyone who is worthy of a master's degree or public trust ceases to be considered a foreigner. The name of the Roman ceased to belong to one city, but became the property of the human race. You have established the management of the world as if it were one family.” It is not surprising, therefore, that in the Roman Empire the idea of Rome as a common fatherland appeared early. It is remarkable that this idea was brought to Rome by immigrants from Spain, which gave Rome its best emperors. Already Seneca, Nero’s tutor and during his childhood the ruler of the empire, exclaims: “Rome is, as it were, our common fatherland.” This expression was then adopted, in a more positive sense, by Roman jurists. “Rome is our common fatherland”: this, by the way, is the basis for the statement that someone expelled from one city cannot live in Rome, since “R. - the fatherland of all." It is clear why R.'s fear of dominion began to give way among the provincials to love for Rome and some kind of worship before it. It is impossible to read without emotion the poem of the Greek woman poet Erinna (the only one that has come down to us from her), in which she greets “Roma, daughter of Ares,” and promises her eternity - or a farewell to Rome to the Gaul Rutilius, who kissed on his knees, with tears before our eyes, “sacred stones” of R., for the fact that he “created a single fatherland for many peoples”, for the fact that “Roman power became a blessing for those conquered against their will”, for the fact that “Rome turned the world into a harmonious community (urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat) and not only ruled, but, more importantly, was worthy of rule.” Much more significant than this gratitude of the provincials who bless Rome for the fact that it, in the words of the poet Prudentius, “threw the vanquished into fraternal fetters,” is another feeling caused by the consciousness that Rome has become a common fatherland. Since then, as Am. Thierry, “a small community on the banks of the Tiber has grown into a universal community,” since the idea of Rome expands and is inspired and Roman patriotism takes on a moral and cultural character, love for Rome becomes love for the human race and the ideal that binds it. Already the poet Lucan, Seneca’s nephew, gives this feeling a strong expression, speaking of “sacred love for the world” (sacer orbis amor) and glorifying “the citizen convinced that he was born into the world not for himself, but for all this world.” . This common consciousness of a cultural connection between all Roman citizens gives rise in the 3rd century to the concept of romanitas, as opposed to barbarism. The task of Romulus’s comrades, who took away their neighbors, the Sabines, their wives and fields, thus turns into a peaceful universal task. In the field of ideals and principles proclaimed by poets, philosophers and lawyers, Rome reaches its highest development and becomes a model for subsequent generations and peoples. He owed this to the interaction of Rome and the provinces; but it was precisely in this process of interaction that the germs of the fall lay. It was prepared from two sides: by transforming itself into the provinces, Rome lost its creative, constructive power, ceased to be a spiritual cement connecting disparate parts; the provinces were too different from each other culturally; the process of assimilation and equalization of rights raised to the surface and often brought to the fore national or social elements that were not yet cultural or were much lower than the general level. Cultural transformationTwo institutions in particular acted harmfully in this direction: slavery and the army. Slavery produced freedmen, the most corrupt part of ancient society, who combined the vices of “slave” and “master” and were devoid of any principles and traditions; and since these were capable and necessary people for the former master, they played a fatal role everywhere, especially at the court of the emperors. The army received representatives physical strength and brute energy and brought them quickly - especially during times of unrest and soldier uprisings to the pinnacle of power, accustoming society to violence and admiration for force, and the rulers to disdain the law. Another danger threatened from the political side: the evolution of the Roman Empire consisted in the creation of a single coherent state from regions of heterogeneous structure, united by Rome with weapons. This goal was achieved by the development of a special government body - the world's first bureaucracy, which kept multiplying and specializing. But, with the increasingly military nature of power, with the increasing predominance of uncultured elements, with the developing desire for unification and equalization, the initiative of the ancient centers and centers of culture began to weaken. This historical process reveals a time when the dominion of Rome had already lost the character of the crude exploitation of the republican era, but had not yet assumed the dead forms of the later empire. The second century is generally recognized as the best era of the Roman Empire, and this is usually attributed to the personal merits of the emperors who reigned then; but it is not just this accident that should explain the significance of the era of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, but the balance established then between opposing elements and aspirations - between Rome and the provinces, between the republican tradition of freedom and the monarchical order. It was a time that can be characterized by the beautiful words of Tacitus, who praises Nerva for “being able to connect things before ( olim) incompatible ( dissociabiles) - principle and freedom." In the 3rd century. this has become impossible. Amid the anarchy caused by the willfulness of the legions, bureaucratic management developed, the crown of which was the Diocletian system, with its desire to regulate everything, define the duties of everyone and chain him to his place: the farmer - to his “block”, the curial - to his curia, the artisan - to his workshop, just as the edict of Diocletian specified a price for every product. It was then that the colonat arose, this transition from ancient slavery to medieval serfdom; the former division of people into political categories - Roman citizens, allies and provincials - was replaced by a division into social classes. At the same time, the end of the ancient world came, which was held together by two concepts - an independent community ( polis) and citizen. The polis is replaced by a municipality; honorary position ( honos) turns into conscription ( munus); the senator of the local curia or curial becomes a serf of the city, obliged to answer with his property for the lack of taxes until ruin; along with the concept of polis The citizen, who previously could have been a magistrate, a warrior, or a priest, disappears, but now becomes either an official, or a soldier, or a clergyman ( clericus). Meanwhile, the most important revolution in terms of its consequences took place in the Roman Empire - unification on religious grounds (see The Birth of Christianity in the Roman Empire). This revolution was already being prepared on the basis of paganism by uniting the gods into a common pantheon or even through monotheistic ideas; but this unification finally took place on the basis of Christianity. The unification in Christianity went far beyond the boundaries of the political unification familiar to the ancient world: on the one hand, Christianity united the Roman citizen with the slave, on the other hand, the Roman with the barbarian. In view of this, the question naturally arose whether Christianity was the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire. The rationalist Gibbon in the century before last resolved this question in an unconditionally affirmative sense. True, Christians, persecuted by pagan emperors, were averse to the empire; It is also true that after its triumph, persecuting the pagans and splitting into hostile sects, Christianity separated the population of the empire and, calling people from the worldly kingdom to God, distracted them from civil and political interests. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that, having become the religion of the Roman state, Christianity introduced new vitality into it and was the guarantee of spiritual unity, which decaying paganism could not provide. This is proven by the very history of Emperor Constantine, who decorated the shields of his soldiers with the monogram of Christ and thereby accomplished a great historical revolution, which Christian tradition so beautifully symbolized in the vision of the cross with the words: “By this victory.” Constantine IDiocletian's artificial tetrarchy did not last long; The Caesars did not have the patience to wait peacefully for their rise in Augusta. Even during the lifetime of Diocletian, who retired in 305, a war broke out between rivals. Proclaimed Caesar by the British legions in 312, Constantine defeated his rival, the last protege of the Roman Praetorians, Caesar Maxentius, under the walls of Rome. This defeat of Rome opened the way to the triumph of Christianity, with which the further success of the winner was associated. Constantine not only gave Christians freedom of worship in the Roman Empire, but also recognition of their church from outside state power. When victory is |
