The First World War, or as it was previously called " Great War"is one of the greatest events in the history of the world. It claimed millions of lives and forever changed the fate of the world's greatest empires. During the war, a lot of events happened: here are the most interesting facts about the First World War:
- When developing helmets for soldiers, the Germans decided to make attachments for them in the form of horns, onto which a metal plate was attached in the forehead area. This was done so that a bullet that hits the helmet, even if it pierces it, will not pass through the metal plate. But in practice, this method did not show its effectiveness, since the impact of the bullet was so strong when it hit the plate that the soldier’s neck broke and he died.
- The famous author of world bestsellers, Agatha Christie, constantly used murder by poison in her works. She understood this issue so well because during the Great War she worked for a long time as a nurse in a military hospital. After which she got a job at a pharmacy and worked there for many more years, studying the characteristics of toxic substances.
- American shooting champion Annie Oakley trained soldiers in shooting skills during the First World War, she was such a professional that she hit a cigarette from a distance of 40 meters, and playing card with 25. While the card was flying to the ground, Annie shot through it several more times.
- One soldier was hit in the temple by a bullet and suffered brain damage. But the soldier survived, although he could no longer sleep. Doctors have not yet determined the cause of this phenomenon. The soldier himself said that he did not feel tired and did not want to sleep. Thus, he did not sleep for 40 years until he died.
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- The British came up with the idea of painting their ships in colorful colors.. A wide variety of color options were used. Naturally, they did not try to hide the ship by doing this. But such colors prevented the scouts from understanding the distance to the ship and its speed of movement. The method was really effective, but was not used in World War II due to the advent of radar.
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- The best trainers Russian Empire taught seals and dolphins to search for sea worlds and neutralize scouts. The idea was interesting and had to show its effectiveness. Several dozen marine animals were trained. But the Germans poisoned them all.
- Adolf Hitler served in the army during World War I. Then he still wore a wide and bushy mustache. And the type of mustache that we used to associate with him arose due to the fact that he shaved his mustache to make it easier to put on a gas mask.
- Americans call sauerkraut"Freedom Cabbage". The fact is that at the beginning of the 20th century it was a German dish, and Americans during and after the war hated everything German. Therefore, they renamed the original German name in their own way: freedom potatoes (in Russian - potato fries) and freedom cabbage.
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- In 1916, a sudden truce was declared between Russia and Germany, due to the fact that on the territory of Belarus, where military operations were taking place, attacks from wolf packs were observed on both fronts. Most of the wolves were shot and then hostilities resumed with renewed vigor.
- It was at the beginning of the 20th century that the still fashionable concept of “trench coat” appeared.. Verbatim from in English this translates as a trench coat, since it was in clothes of this style that soldiers hid in the trenches. The style was chosen very well and is therefore still relevant today in various colors and styles.
- Aircraft technology was developing very actively. The Japanese came up with the new kind naval aircraft carriers - underwater. They quietly approached their destination, emerged from the water, and in this position the plane took off from it. The Germans developed more aircraft carriers. They had huge airships that carried airplanes. This was necessary for long-distance flights, as there might not be enough fuel. Later they came up with ways to refuel, and this type of transportation lost its relevance.
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- The British have a tradition of raising pirate flags after the submarine returns to its port.. This happened because one Englishman, the admiral of an English ship, said that sailing on submarines is dishonest, only pirates can do this. Then it turned into a fun tradition.
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- During the First World War, pigeons were very popular as a way of transmitting information.. Since the optimal option has not yet been invented. But the Germans went further and decided to use pigeons as photographers. The pictures turned out pretty good. But this direction did not receive development for unknown reasons.
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- To prevent the Germans from getting the French ships, even before the result of the hostilities appeared, the French Admiral Reuther decided to sink all his ships. Thus, the French army lost about 80 ships, but they did not give them to the Germans.
- In Russia the tank was originally called “tub”. Because the British, in order to deliver the tanks to the Russian borders, spread rumors that these were water tanks on a special order and no one touched them. Tank is literally translated as “tank”. But he took root in Russia English version this word.
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“The times have already passed when other nations divided lands and waters among themselves, and we, the Germans, were content with only the blue sky... We also demand a place in the sun for ourselves,” said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the times of the Crusaders or Frederick II, the focus on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines of Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification allowed Germany to significantly increase its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power. At the beginning of the 20th century. It has reached second place in the world in terms of industrial production.
The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle between rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - colonies from England and France and western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of Berlin’s aggressive strategy remained the “onslaught on the East”, in Slavic lands, where the German sword had to conquer the place for the German plow. In this Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where Austro-German diplomacy managed, on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions, to split the union of the Balkan countries and cause a second Balkan war between Bulgaria and the rest of the countries of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing the dominance of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. The aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states created by Russia's centuries-long struggle with the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, interrupting negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.
Two days later, William declared war on France, in whose defense England came out. Türkiye became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing it to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, closing the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. The Russian state by the end of the 18th century. achieved its main territorial goals in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and markets that attracted aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force restraining German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with seizing control of the straits and ensuring free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where hostile Russians were located, was not excluded. Orthodox Church Uniate centers.
The German attack caught Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay of which deprived the Germans of any chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles heel" was the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The Russian leadership was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle would be used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and ammunition with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, who had not fought with the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And not everyone in the highest circles saw the German Empire as a cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: family dynastic ties, similar political systems, long-standing and close relations between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening sense of patriotism in the educated strata of Russian society, which were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. Thus, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: “The French have “che”re France,” the British have “Old England.” The Germans call it “our old Fritz.” Only those who went through a Russian gymnasium and university have “damned Russia.” A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military conflict. As for Russian society, it, as a rule, did not feel the prospect of a long and grueling struggle with a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the onset of the “terrible years of Russia.” Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.
1914 Campaign Western Theater
The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the Chief of the General Staff A. von Schlieffen. It envisaged holding back the slowly mobilizing Russians with small forces and delivering the main blow in the west against France. After its defeat and capitulation, it was planned to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was compiled under the influence of the Allies. It envisaged, even before the completion of mobilization, an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, assumed that the Germans would deliver the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilno-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. Ultimately, events began to develop according to the first option. Having started the war, Germany unleashed all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to slow mobilization across the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by persistent requests for help from allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught from the Germans.
East Prussian operation (1914). On the Russian side, the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies took part in this operation. The front of their advance was divided by the Masurian lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd Army to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Epanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenschild-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, General Bulgakov's 25th Division captured Stallupenen. Russian losses amounted to 6.7 thousand people, Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, German troops fought a new, larger battle for the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, which were advancing in two directions towards Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break up the 1st Army piecemeal. On the morning of August 7, the German shock force fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to capture them in a pincer movement. The Germans pressed the Russian right flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. Total losses Germans numbered about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off Prittwitz’s path to the west, forced the German commander to initially order a withdrawal across the Vistula (this was provided for in the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood in place for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup its forces. Without precise information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Konigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (south from Königsberg).
While Rennenkampf was marching on Konigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against Samsonov’s army, which did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radiograms, were aware of all the Russian plans. On August 13, Hindenburg unleashed an unexpected blow on the 2nd Army from almost all of his East Prussian divisions and inflicted a severe defeat on it in 4 days of fighting. Samsonov, having lost control of his troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage to the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which by September 2 withdrew beyond the Neman. The East Prussian operation had dire consequences for the Russians in tactical and especially moral terms. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, won by the Germans tactically, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the plan for a lightning war. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of military operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon went on the offensive again in East Prussia.
Battle of Galicia (1914). The most ambitious and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It involved 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front (under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German Woyrsch group. The sides had approximately equal numbers of fighters. In total it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them exceeded the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with a strike by Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the area of Lublin and Kholm. There were: the 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce encounter battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed to Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation took place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholm-Lublin direction. However, the general situation at the front was developing threateningly for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southern direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. A possible meeting of German and Austro-Hungarian troops west of Warsaw, in the area of the city of Siedlce, threatened to encircle the Russian armies in Poland.
But despite persistent calls from the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not attack Sedlec. He focused primarily on clearing East Prussia of the 1st Army and abandoned his allies to their fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and launched a counteroffensive on August 22. However, it developed slowly. Holding back the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th Army of General Brusilov still managed with its last strength to close the breakthrough and hold its positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the Russian onslaught from the north (from the Lublin-Kholm region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the forces of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. Subsequently, if Austria-Hungary achieved success on the Russian front, it was only with the strong support of the Germans.
Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). Victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army (including those arriving from the western front) to the Warta River area. Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), launched an offensive on Warsaw and Ivangorod on September 15, 1914. At the end of September - beginning of October, Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the closest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% of personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this area to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into the battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of communications routes by the retreating, and poor supply of Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states to its side in 1914.
First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German Army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow Forests (in the area of the Polish city of Augustow), since fighting in forested areas did not allow the Germans to take advantage of their advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce fighting broke out at this line, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.
Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). Siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops besieged Przemysl in September 1914. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the brutal October battles at Khirov and San, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible to blockade Przemysl for the second time at the end of October 1914. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his foray on March 5, 1915 ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, Commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the largest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl in connection with a general retreat from Galicia.
Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the Northwestern Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command knew about the impending attack from intercepted radiograms. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful pre-emptive strike on October 29 with the goal of encircling and destroying the 5th (General Plehwe) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz area. The core of the advancing German group with a total number of 280 thousand people. formed part of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under pressure from superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The heaviest fighting broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough of General Schaeffer's German corps into the eastern Lodz area on November 5-6, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which arrived from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin the withdrawal of troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the “Lodz patch”, and German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and linked up with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap where Schaeffer's corps had broken through was closed, and he himself found himself surrounded. Although the German corps managed to escape from the bag, the German command's plan to defeat the armies of the Northwestern Front failed. However, the Russian command also had to say goodbye to the plan to attack Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side still lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), Russian troops were now unable to really threaten German territory. The Germans suffered 50 thousand casualties.
"The Battle of Four Rivers" (1914). Having failed to achieve success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back across the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, German troops with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsch group again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction on November 19. After heavy fighting in the area of the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After this, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), located to the south, went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce “battle on four rivers” (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire line of the Russian front in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the German onslaught on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The “Battle of Four Rivers” was distinguished by extreme tenacity and significant losses on both sides. The damage to the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its personnel suffered especially, which directly influenced the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German Army exceeded 100 thousand people.
Campaign of 1914 Caucasian theater of military operations
The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already entered the war in 1914. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. The 90,000-strong Turkish army was led by War Minister Enver Pasha. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian Army under the overall command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (the troops were actually commanded by General A.Z. Myshlaevsky). The central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of military operations was the Sarykamysh operation.
Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian Army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Olta detachment), the Turks on December 12, in severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units here (up to 1 battalion). Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived to the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led its defense. Having failed to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10 thousand people due to frostbite. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main attack to Karaudan, which was defended by the units of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Meanwhile, Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps on December 22. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian Army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and prisoners. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory at Sarykamysh stopped Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the position of the Caucasian Army.
1914 Campaign War at sea
During this period, the main actions took place on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (the basis of which was the German battle cruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.
Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships at Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle came down to an artillery duel between the Goeben and the Russian lead battleship Eustathius. Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, the Goeben received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the rest of the Russian ships to enter the battle, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there the Goeben was repaired until December, and then, going out to sea, it hit a mine and was again undergoing repairs). "Eustathius" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having tested the strength of Russia's Black Sea borders in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations off the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea communications.
1915 Campaign Western Front
By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front close to the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there had been no casualties on the part of Russia in 1914,” said British Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “then German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still have been in Belgium and France." In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This implied the occupation of East Prussia and an invasion of the Hungarian Plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During active military operations in 1914, the Russian personnel army was killed in the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia. Its decline had to be made up by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular character of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained police force.” Another serious problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition was tens of times higher than calculated. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, is particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet 15-30% of the army's needs. The task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing became clear. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, the Russian armed forces entered the New Year with a shortage of weapons and personnel. This fatally influenced the 1915 campaign. The results of the battles in the east forced the Germans to radically reconsider the Schlieffen plan.
The German leadership now considered Russia to be its main rival. Its troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to throw their main forces to the east to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was made easier by the ability to wage a maneuver war in the east (in the west by that time a continuous positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which would cost enormous casualties). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted of deep envelopment from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal of these “strategic Cannes” was to be the encirclement of the Russian armies in the “Polish pocket”.
Battle of the Carpathians (1915). It became the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling Russian troops in Poland. The Battle of the Carpathians began on January 7 with an almost simultaneous offensive by the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). A counter-battle took place, called the “rubber war.” Both sides, pressing on each other, had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat back. The fighting in the snowy mountains was characterized by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push back the left flank of the 8th Army, but they were unable to break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repelled their advance. “As I toured the troops in the mountain positions,” he recalled, “I bowed to these heroes who steadfastly endured the terrifying burden of a mountainous winter war with insufficient weapons, facing three times the strongest enemy.” Only the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi, was able to achieve partial success. At the beginning of March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of the spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming fierce enemy resistance, Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command transferred new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Battle of the Carpathians, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.
Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian Battle, fierce fighting broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Below) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies went on the offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell in the area of the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of Sievers’ army and tried to encircle it. The second stage provided for a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front. But due to the tenacity of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely capture it in pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repelled attacks by German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overthrown the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. “The attempt to break through was complete madness. But this holy madness is heroism, which showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the times of the storming of Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the storming of Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all kinds of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable!”, wrote the German war correspondent R. Brandt in those days. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from attack by mid-February and took up defense on the Kovno-Osovets line. The Northwestern Front held out and then managed to partially restore its lost positions.
Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out on another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) was stationed. On February 7, in the Prasnysz area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Below). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repelled the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for a winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, General Pleshkov’s 1st Siberian Corps approached Prasnysh and immediately attacked the Germans. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians completely defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on a general offensive, which, after stubborn fighting, drove the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. Meanwhile, the 10th Army also went on the offensive and cleared the Augustow Forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Encounter battles along the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians depleted reserves Russian army on the eve of a formidable blow, which the Austro-German command was already preparing for her.
Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). The beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push back Russian troops at the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third breakthrough option. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, over half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. In the 35-kilometer section of the breakthrough at Gorlice, a strike group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It was superior to the Russian 3rd Army (General Radko-Dmitriev) stationed in this area: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, Mackensen’s group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the build-up of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here late, were brought into battle piecemeal and quickly died in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of shortage of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this, the largest German success on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible roar of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. “We almost didn’t respond - we had nothing. The regiments, exhausted to the last degree, repelled one attack after the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.”
The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left all of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, Mackensen’s group was not able to quickly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to “pushing through” the Russian front. It was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the German offensive from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called The Great Retreat, during which Russian troops left Galicia, Lithuania, and Poland in the spring and summer of 1915. Russia's allies, meanwhile, were busy strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The Union leadership used the respite given to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. “We,” Lloyd George later admitted, “left Russia to its fate.”
Battles of Prasnysh and Narev (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began to carry out the second act of its “strategic Cannes” and struck from the north, from East Prussia, against the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. German troops had superiority in numbers of personnel (177 thousand versus 141 thousand people) and weapons. The superiority in artillery was especially significant (1256 versus 377 guns). After hurricane fire and a powerful onslaught, German units captured the main defense line. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, much less the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, launching counterattacks in threatened areas. In 6 days of continuous fighting, Galwitz's soldiers were able to advance 30-35 km. Without even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began to regroup its forces and pull up reserves for a new attack. In the Battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The tenacity of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin withdrawing its armies beyond the Vistula.
Having brought up their reserves, the Germans went on the offensive again on July 10. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies took part in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narev front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. Having an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They managed to cross the river in several places, but the Russians, with fierce counterattacks, did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads until the beginning of August. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The resilience of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate from the Warsaw area without hindrance. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narevo. The Germans also suffered considerable losses. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the battles of Prasnysh and Narew saved Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.
Battle of Vilna (1915). The end of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno region (now Kaunas). But the Germans forestalled this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and on August 5 surrendered the fortress to the Germans (for this he was later sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the North-Western Front troops beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive stalled. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful group in the Sventsyan area (north of Vilno) and on August 27 launched an attack on Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Due to the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilna. However, the Germans failed to develop their success. Their path was blocked by the timely arrival of the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Decisively attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to Sventsyany. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this area stabilized. The Battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans switched to positional defense in the east. The German plan to defeat Russia's armed forces and exit the war failed. Thanks to the courage of its soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army avoided encirclement. “The Russians broke out of the pincers and achieved a frontal retreat in a direction favorable to them,” the Chief of the German General Staff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the Riga - Baranovichi - Ternopil line. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the largest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.
Campaign 1915 Caucasian theater of military operations
The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support the Allied forces landing at Gallipoli, was disrupted. Under the influence of the German successes, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.
Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the area of Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the pressure of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky) defending this area began to retreat to the Russian border. This created the threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian Army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, which dealt a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish group. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes of seizing the strategic initiative in the Caucasus theater of military operations.
Hamadan Operation (1915). From October 17 to December 3, 1915, Russian troops took offensive actions in Northern Iran to suppress the possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Advancing to Hamadan, the Russians defeated Turkish-Persian troops (8 thousand people) and eliminated German-Turkish agents in the country . This created a reliable barrier against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and also eliminated a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army.
1915 Campaign War at sea
Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for Russian fleet. Among the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can highlight the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosporus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).
March to the Bosphorus (1915). A squadron of the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes, took part in the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the Bosphorus Strait area, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship Rostislav opened fire on the fortified area of Iniada (northwest of the Bosphorus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosphorus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battle cruiser Goeben - and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship Eustathius distinguished itself, which disabled the Goeben with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and left the battle. This campaign to the Bosphorus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. Subsequently, the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet was German submarines. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With the entry of Bulgaria into the war, the zone of operation of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a new large area in the western part of the sea.
Gotland Fight (1915). This sea battle occurred on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the firefight, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was severely damaged and, engulfed in flames, washed up on the Swedish coast. There his team was interned. Then a cruising battle took place. It was attended by: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lubeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and left the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant because for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio reconnaissance data was used to fire.
Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) attempted at the end of July to break through the Irbene Strait into the Gulf of Riga to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga at sea . Here the Germans were confronted by ships Baltic Fleet led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete the assigned task due to minefields and the successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats (Sivuch and Koreets). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans were unable to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. Subsequently, serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.
1916 Campaign Western Front
Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to defense of private industry, whose activities were coordinated by military-industrial committees (MIC), expanded. Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the supply of the front improved by 1916. Thus, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various types guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew due to additional mobilizations by 1.4 million people. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to deliver the main blow to the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous “Verdun meat grinder” began, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.
Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, the Russian command carried out an offensive on March 5-17, 1916 with troops from the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jacobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania and Belarus and throwing them back to the borders of East Prussia. But the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation at Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch area was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragosa). For 10 days she tried unsuccessfully to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20 thousand killed and 65 thousand wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage to the Germans was 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, Russia's allies, since the Germans were unable to transfer a single division from the east to Verdun. “The Russian offensive,” wrote the French general Joffre, “forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to bring all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions removed from other sectors.” On the other hand, the defeat at Naroch and Jacobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western Fronts. They were never able, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, to conduct successful offensive operations in 1916.
Brusilov breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people), led by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov, began. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that moment numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov used a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted of alternating active and passive breakthrough sections. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate forces on the threatened areas. The Brusilov breakthrough was distinguished by careful preparation (including training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: “Don’t spare shells!” Artillery preparation in various areas lasted from 6 to 45 hours. By figuratively historian N.N. Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, “the Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of serene sunrays, death came from the east - thousands of shells turned the inhabited, heavily fortified positions into hell.” It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops were able to achieve the greatest degree of coordinated action between infantry and artillery.
Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilov method of “rolling attack” was then used by the Allies to break through German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front came down to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group Woyrsch. Having gone on the attack after many hours of artillery bombardment, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, defense in depth (there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire at the front line alone). After bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of Woyrsch's group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.
The headquarters was unable to shift the task of delivering the main attack to the Southwestern Front in time, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans, with the forces of the created group of General Liesingen, launched a counterattack in the Kovel area against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front. But she repelled the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army that finally received reinforcements, launched a new offensive on Kovel. In July, the main battles took place in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians transferred reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.
During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke through the Austro-German defenses along its entire length from the Pripyat marshes to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to weaken their pressure on France and Italy. Influenced by the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But persistent attacks in the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. The Austro-German units, strengthened by that time, repelled the Russian onslaught. In general, despite the tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not bring a turning point in the course of the war. They cost Russia enormous casualties (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.
Campaign of 1916 Caucasian theater of military operations
At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by conducting the Erzurum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved their greatest success in the Caucasian theater of military operations.
Erzurum and Trebizond operations (1916). The goal of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzurum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish Army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian Army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive on Erzurum. The offensive took place in snow-capped mountains with strong winds and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzurum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk. But Yudenich still decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its implementation. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzurum and then began pursuing the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzurum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced from their borders deeper into Turkish territory by more than 150 km. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of the mountain snow. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.
Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbitten). The damage to the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (Captain 1st Rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, landings and the supply of reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky detachment (15 thousand people) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two Plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. The first to cross the stormy cold river on April 2 were the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polathane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian Army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The Russian capture of Eastern Turkey was of great political significance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies regarding the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.
Kerind-Kasreshiri operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to provide assistance to an English detachment surrounded by the Turks in Kut el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. Baratov’s corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Hanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison in Kut el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish Army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which was greatly thinned out (from heat and disease). At Haneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad), Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps abandoned the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. Eastern of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.
Erzrincan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzurum and Trebizond. The first to go on the offensive from the Erzincan area on June 13 was the 3rd Turkish Army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people). The hottest battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan Regiment was stationed. With his steadfastness he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzurum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish Army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having been defeated near Erzincan, the Turkish command entrusted the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, it went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). This created a threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich launched a counterattack on the Turks at Ognot with the forces of General Vorobyov’s group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognotic direction, which lasted throughout August, Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. Turkish losses amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. During two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and ceased active operations against the Russians. The Ognot operation was the last major battle of the Russian Caucasian Army in the First World War.
1916 Campaign War at sea
In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army defending Riga with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines also did this quite successfully. One of the retaliatory actions of the German fleet is its shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This foray, based on insufficient understanding of Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation, 7 of the 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign were blown up and sank on Russian minefields. None of the fleets knew such a case during the entire war. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transportation of troops, landing troops and fire support for the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to blockade the Bosphorus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy’s sea communications. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.
1917 campaign
By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained quite stable. Its army held its position firmly and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then from Paris they were only 120 km. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain collection decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, and transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men were drafted into the army - 15 million people, and the national economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in entire years of previous wars. All this required unprecedented effort from the people. However, not all society bore the burden of war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, huge profits came from placing military orders at private factories. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed prices to inflate. Evasion from the front by joining rear organizations was widely practiced. In general, the problems of the rear, its proper and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war at lightning speed, the First World War became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages depended to a large extent on the mood of the nation and strong and skillful leadership.
IN in this regard Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere has such an irresponsible split at the top of society been observed. Representatives State Duma, aristocracy, generals, left parties, liberal intelligentsia and circles of the bourgeoisie associated with them expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious conclusion. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to establish proper order in the rear during wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, turned out to be helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which became hostage to this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus for the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived officers of disciplinary power over soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officers suffered greatly, becoming the first victims of soldiers' discontent. The purge of the senior command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position with successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.
June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The offensive was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was of a propaganda nature and was intended to raise the prestige of the new government. At first, the Russians enjoyed success, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). It broke through the front and advanced 50 km, occupying the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the troops of the Southwestern Front could not achieve more. Their pressure quickly wilted under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. At the beginning of July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the Southwestern Front were defeated and were thrown back significantly east of their original lines, to the state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Maresti, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jacobstadt completely failed. The total loss of Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. Political events that had a disintegrating effect on the troops played a significant role in their failure. “These were no longer the old Russians,” German General Ludendorff recalled about those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.
Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans, on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Goutier) to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, German troops went on the offensive. By noon they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived specially on the occasion of this celebration. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand were prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat near Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.
Moonsund operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy Russian naval forces there. To this end, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. To implement it, they allocated a special-purpose naval detachment consisting of 300 ships various classes(including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing of troops on the Moonsund Islands, which blocked the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Katen (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom, which fought heroically. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an orderly manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron’s path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and worthily completed their participation in the First World War.
Brest-Litovsk Truce (1917). Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who advocated an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, a truce was concluded between the Bolshevik government and German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of newly independent Finland and Ukraine, as well as from the districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk threw it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). In addition, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy and establish benefits for Germany customs duties, as well as pay the German side a significant indemnity (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks took upon themselves historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty only recorded the situation in which the country found itself, driven to collapse by war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. During World War I, the death toll in the Russian army was 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.
Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
WORLD WAR I
(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918), the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; of these, 9.5 million were killed or died from wounds, more than 20 million were wounded, 3.5 million were left crippled.
Main reasons. The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of German unification was completed and Prussian hegemony was consolidated in the German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the system of unions, the foreign policy of the German government was determined by the desire to achieve a dominant position for Germany in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck tried to bind Russia and Austria-Hungary to Germany with secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Alliance of the Three Emperors disintegrated. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's position by creating the Triple Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany took the leading role in European diplomacy. France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891-1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, it concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterweight to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aloof from competition on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced it to make its choice. The British could not help but be concerned about the nationalist sentiments that reigned in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the increase in the power of the navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "cordial agreement" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape. One of the reasons for the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. In formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each European country sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in an alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the partitions of the 18th century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary sought national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London they believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing their main enemy - Germany. Tensions in international relations were heightened by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in 1908-1909; finally, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened its commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could practically no longer count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
The July crisis and the beginning of the war. After the Balkan Wars, active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the Young Bosnia secret organization, decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for training exercises with the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in the city of Sarajevo by high school student Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would become local if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if it provides assistance to Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military units be allowed into Serbia in order to, together with Serbian forces, suppress hostile actions. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. S.D. Sazonov, Russian Foreign Minister, openly opposed Austria-Hungary, receiving assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgium's neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. Following the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war. The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed stalemate. This period ended with negotiations for a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry of the United States into the war on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major offensive of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the capitulation of the Central Powers.
First period. The Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany’s ties with overseas countries, from where copper, tin and nickel were supplied to German enterprises before the war. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - "blitzkrieg". The Germans put into effect the Schlieffen plan, which proposed to ensure rapid success in the West by attacking France with large forces through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to deliver a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not implemented. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgium. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liege, which blocked the route to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported an almost 90,000-strong expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluck found itself 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and stopped along the Paris-Verdun line on September 5. The commander of the French forces, General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive. The First Battle of the Marne began on September 5 and ended on September 12. 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies took part in it. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French offensive on the weakened right flank made the withdrawal of the German armies to the north, to the line of the Aisne River, inevitable. The battles in Flanders on the Yser and Ypres rivers from October 15 to November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in Allied hands, ensuring communication between France and England. Paris was saved, and the Entente countries had time to mobilize resources. The war in the West took on a positional character; Germany’s hope of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable. The confrontation followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium, to Compiegne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Mihiel, and then southeast to the Swiss border. Along this line of trenches and wire fences, the length is approx. Trench warfare was fought for 970 km for four years. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses on both sides. There remained hopes that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans towards Konigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with leading the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a “wedge” between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and drive them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southern direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, taking several thousand people prisoner, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of Russian troops created a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial areas for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia enormous casualties, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to maintain significant forces on the Eastern Front. Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Central Powers bloc. At the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at secret London negotiations in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy Italy's territorial claims during the post-war peace settlement if Italy came on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916 on Germany. On the western front, the British were defeated at the Second Battle of Ypres. Here, during battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After this, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring sides. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, bringing Turkey out of the war and winning the Balkan states to the side of the allies, also ended in defeat. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was never possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with their new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.
War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lines of communication open for US merchant ships. German colonies were captured, and German trade through sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine one - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small flotillas emerge to strike British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British one off the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6800 people killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victors, - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to retreat to Kiel, where it was effectively blocked. German fleet did not appear on the high seas again, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas. Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. Under international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered “war contraband” to other neutral countries, such as the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could also be delivered to Germany. However, warring countries usually did not commit themselves to complying with the norms international law, and Great Britain had so expanded the list of cargo considered smuggled that virtually nothing was allowed through its barriers in the North Sea. The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Her only effective means a submarine fleet remained at sea, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to rescue the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships. On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President William Wilson protested, and the United States and Germany exchanged harsh diplomatic notes.
Verdun and Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and look for a way out of the impasse in actions on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing to launch a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front that would turn the tide of the war and force France to sue for peace. The ancient fortress of Verdun served as a key point of French defense. After an unprecedented artillery bombardment, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans advanced slowly until the beginning of July, but did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun “meat grinder” clearly did not live up to the expectations of the German command. Great importance during the spring and summer of 1916 they had operations on the Eastern and Southwestern fronts. In March, Russian troops, at the request of the allies, carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, keeping 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting, under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to achieve a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina and entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To ease the pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were continuous attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Foundations for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century. The methods of warfare have completely changed. The length of fronts increased significantly, armies fought on fortified lines and launched attacks from trenches, and machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth resident of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries there was almost no place left for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was variously estimated to range from $208 billion to $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to begin peace negotiations.
Second period.
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers turned to the United States with a request to transmit a note to the allies with a proposal to begin peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made with the aim of breaking up the coalition. Moreover, she did not want to talk about a peace that did not include the payment of reparations and recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and on December 18, 1916, asked the warring countries to determine mutually acceptable peace terms. On December 12, 1916, Germany proposed convening a peace conference. The German civil authorities clearly sought peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their conditions: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe. The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take the idea of peace negotiations seriously. Germany intended to take part in December 1916 peace conference, relying on the benefits of their military position. It ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain claimed the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to gain Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - such as Irish Americans who were hostile to England and German Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens became increasingly inclined to side with the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, most notably the propaganda of the Entente countries and the submarine war of Germany. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson outlined peace terms acceptable to the United States in the Senate. The main one boiled down to the demand for “peace without victory,” i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, and the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace were made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, a world organization of states could be created that would guarantee security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare with the aim of disrupting enemy communications. The submarines blocked the Entente's supply lines and put the Allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility toward Germany among Americans, since the blockade of Europe from the West foreshadowed troubles for the United States as well. In case of victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean. Along with the above-mentioned circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to war on the side of its allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly related to the Entente countries, since military orders led to rapid growth American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred by plans to develop combat training programs. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, intercepted by British intelligence and transferred to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it supported Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States had reached such an intensity that Congress voted on April 6, 1917 to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution occurred in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. The Provisional Government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded. Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardahan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period.
The Germans had ample reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then its withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of attack. The Allies, not knowing where the attack would come from, were forced to strengthen positions along the entire front. American aid was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatist sentiments grew with alarming force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918. On the foggy morning of March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the Anglo-French united front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance. On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Chateau-Thierry. The situation of 1914 repeated itself: the Germans reached the Marne River just 60 km from Paris. However, the offensive cost Germany major losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shaken. The Allies managed to neutralize German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany. Soon the long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France. On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt to break through at Chateau-Thierry. The second decisive battle of the Marne unfolded. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to abandon Reims, which, in turn, could lead to an Allied retreat along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, German troops advanced, but not as quickly as expected.
The last Allied offensive. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began in order to relieve pressure on Chateau-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. At the Battle of Amiens on August 8, German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Previously, German Chancellor Prince von Hertling believed that by September the Allies would sue for peace. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. “That’s what we thought on the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the greatest optimists among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military personnel convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat. The Allied offensive began on other fronts as well. On June 20-26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were thrown back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the desertion of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered their remaining forces to hold off the expected invasion of Hungary. The path to Germany was open. Tanks and massive artillery shelling were important factors in the offensive. At the beginning of August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called August 8 - the beginning of the Battle of Amiens - "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered into captivity almost without a fight. By the end of September even Ludendorff was ready to capitulate. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Soloniki front, Bulgaria signed an armistice on September 29. A month later, Türkiye capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary. To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed headed by Prince Max of Baden, who already on October 5, 1918 invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. IN last week October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. Italian cavalry and armored vehicles made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the entire battle its name. On October 27, Emperor Charles I made an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918 he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.
Revolution in Germany. On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and went to the general headquarters, feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, the crew of two warships disobeyed and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebel sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile, the Supreme Allied Commander, General Foch, said that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss the terms of the armistice with them. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated the throne and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German Emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941). On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne Forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne Armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the Allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway cars, 5,000 automobiles; release all prisoners immediately. The Navy was required to surrender all submarines and almost all surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - payment of reparations for destruction and return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate an armistice based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a preliminary basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the truce required almost unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
Conclusion of peace. The peace conference took place in 1919 in Paris; During the sessions, agreements regarding five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain Peace Treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly Peace Treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Peace Treaty of Sevres with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, changes were made to the Treaty of Sevres. Thirty-two states were represented at the peace conference in Paris. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information regarding the geographical, historical and economic situation of the countries on which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, not satisfied with the solution to the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the main architect of the post-war world became the “Big Three” - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve the main goal of creating the League of Nations. He agreed to the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. The size of the German army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal conscription was abolished; The German armed forces were to be staffed by volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was prohibited from having combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in peace treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. A fierce debate ensued between Clemenceau and Wilson over the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland state. France's plan contradicted the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and favored self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign loose war treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and a 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. The coal deposits known as the Saar Basin also became the property of France for 15 years; the Saar region itself came under the control of the League of Nations commission. After the expiration of the 15-year period, a plebiscite was envisaged on the issue of statehood of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to resolve the issue of the disputed territories themselves. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was deprived of its colonial possessions. Great Britain acquired German East Africa and the western part of German Cameroon and Togo; South-West Africa, the north-eastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoan islands were transferred to the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. France received most of German Togo and eastern Cameroon. Japan received the German-owned Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also envisaged the division of the Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to revise their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne repealed the Treaty of Sèvres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Türkiye regained Armenia. Syria went to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea were given to Italy; the Arab territory of Hejaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence. Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement; in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers proposed that instead of actually transferring the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to govern as trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called “mandatory”. Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed punitive measures for damages, the fight on this issue ended in victory for the French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; The question of what should be included in the list of destruction presented for payment was also subject to lengthy discussion. At first, the exact amount was not mentioned, only in 1921 its size was determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); this amount was subsequently reduced. The principle of self-determination of nations became key for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of determining its boundaries was not easy; Of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. the "Polish corridor", which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New independent states emerged in the Baltic region: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, and Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania arose in its place; the borders between these states were controversial. The problem turned out to be complex due to the mixed settlement of different peoples. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were affected. Romania doubled its territory at the expense of Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary had decreased greatly and was now approx. 8 million people. At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other like-minded people, the League of Nations was supposed to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted and, after much debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The Agreement on the League of Nations represented that part Treaty of Versailles, which Germany was also offered to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign it on the grounds that the agreement did not comply with Wilson's Fourteen Points. Ultimately, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, ecstatic with victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
LITERATURE
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975 Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, the USSR and international conflicts of the first half of the 20th century. M., 1989 To the 75th anniversary of the beginning of the First World War. M., 1990 Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914-1915. M., 1990 Kudrina Yu.V. Turning to the origins of the First World War. Paths to safety. M., 1994 World War I: debatable problems of history. M., 1994 World War I: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994 Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. The First World War and prospects for social development in Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995 World War I: Prologue of the 20th century. M., 1998
Wikipedia
First World War 1914 – 1918 became one of the bloodiest and largest conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. Thirty-eight states participated in this conflict. If we talk about the causes of the First World War briefly, then we can say with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions between the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that there was probably a possibility of a peaceful resolution of these contradictions. However, feeling their increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action.
Participants in the First World War were:
- on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);
- on the other hand, the Entente bloc, which consisted of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).
The outbreak of World War I was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.
Historians divide the course of the First World War into five separate military campaigns.
The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 dates back to July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declared war on Russia, and on August 3, on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and, later, Belgium. In 1914 major events The First World War took place in France and is today known as the “Run to the Sea.” In an effort to encircle the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The German command's expectation of a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. These are the events on the Western Front.
Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by most of society with joy. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914.
Events in the Balkans also did not develop very well. Belgrade, previously captured by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There was no active fighting in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also opposed Germany, which allowed Russia to secure its Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize Germany's island colonies. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communications with the allied countries. At the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.
The second campaign in the First World War chronology dates back to 1915. The most severe military clashes took place on the Western Front. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the situation in their favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, by the end of 1915 the front line had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations carried out in Champagne and Artois in the fall, changed the situation.
The situation on the Russian front changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the ill-prepared Russian army soon turned into the August German counter-offensive. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only in the fall. German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just as in France, contributed to the start of a trench war.
1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it declared the start of war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to a complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.
During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles of the First World War took place - Verdun. In an effort to suppress French resistance, the German command concentrated enormous forces in the area of the Verdun salient, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defense. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany died. The Battle of Verdun is also famous for the fact that it was used for the first time new type weapon - flamethrower. However, greatest effect this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, on the Western Russian Front, offensive, called the Brusilov breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the Allies.
It should be noted that military operations developed not only on land. There was a fierce confrontation between the blocs of the world's strongest powers on the water as well. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War at sea took place – the Battle of Jutland. In general, at the end of the year the Entente bloc became dominant. The Quadruple Alliance's peace proposal was rejected.
During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in favor of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on strategic defense on land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to take England out of the war using the submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916–17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus. The situation in Russia has become extremely aggravated. In fact, after the October events the country left the war.
1918 brought important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War.
After Russia actually left the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. The terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be extremely difficult for the country, but this treaty was soon annulled.
Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and part of Belarus, after which it threw all its forces onto the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany found itself on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender.
According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to harsh living conditions, epidemics and famine, twice as many people died.
Following the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. It lost 1/8 of its territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The banks of the Rhine were occupied for 15 years allied forces. Also, Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons.
But the Consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was in a difficult state. The standard of living of the population dropped sharply, and the national economy fell into disrepair. At the same time, the military monopolies became richer. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.
World War I was one of the most destructive wars known to mankind until World War II. Although political differences between the countries led to the war, it began after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie by a Serbian nationalist.
However, before the assassination, several countries and empires sought means to expand their territory, countering the expansion of other empires. This caused most of them to form alliances. By the time the Archduke was killed, their alliances had drawn them into war.
Three leading empires were ruled by cousins
Russia, Germany and Britain - the three empires at the center of the First World War - were ruled by cousins. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany and King George V of Great Britain were cousins, King George V and Tsar Nicholas II were first cousins, and Tsar Nicholas II and Kaiser Wilhelm II were second cousins.
Given that the three emperors were descendants of King George II of Great Britain, William II's mother was the sister of George V's father, and George V's mother and Nicholas II's mother were sisters, the three emperors were also fifth cousins.
At that time, Queen Victoria was called the "Mother of Europe" because she was closely associated with most of the reigning dynasties of Europe.
For example, George V and William II were her grandchildren. However, she did not encourage any relationship between them and never wanted to see them together. George V's mother, Princess Alexandra of Denmark, also did not welcome any fraternization between George V and William II. However, she encouraged George V to maintain close relations with Nicholas II, the son of her sister Dagmara. By the time they became emperors, the cousins maintained a rivalry. Although all three never believed that the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria would lead to war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, they knew it was possible. And such a war would definitely drag them out, because Austria-Hungary was connected with Germany, and Serbia with Russia. At the same time, Russia was connected with France, and France with Great Britain.
The cousins were no longer able to stop the war by the time it became inevitable.
The murder and subsequent crises played into the hands of army generals and politicians who were more interested in " national pride"and arms dealers who just wanted to make money.
Russia asked Germany to stop the war 
World War I officially began on July 28, 1914, the day Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. That same morning, Nicholas II sent a telegram to Wilhelm II, begging him to end the war. The telegram was partly unofficial, and Nicholas II even signed it with his nickname Niki. Nicholas II explained that a war against Serbia would lead to Russian participation, which he did not want. William responded that the impending war had no political effect and simply had to deal with the men who killed the Archduke. He added that he was doing everything possible to ensure that Austria-Hungary reached an agreement with Russia. He also signed the telegram with his nickname, Willie.
The cousins continued to exchange telegrams. However, they did not reach an agreement, although they did not want war. At one point, Wilhelm said that Austro-Hungarian troops would go to Belgrade, Serbia, not attacking the Serbs, but waiting for Serbia to destroy the Black Hand terrorist group that killed the Archduke.
He instructed his chancellor to forward this proposal to Russia, but the chancellor instructed the German ambassador to Russia to inform Russia that Germany would mobilize its troops in response to Russia's mobilization. Both emperors continued to exchange telegrams. They also did not stop mobilizing their armies. They did nothing to postpone the war. On August 1, a few days after the first telegram was sent, Germany declared war on Russia.
Communists in Russia 
With the passage of time, we can safely say that the First World War was an important reason for the revolutions in Russia and the victory of the communists led by Lenin.
The war took its toll on the Russian economy. It was longer than expected and there was no hope that Russia would win.
After a series of defeats, Tsar Nicholas II dismissed his inexperienced cousin, whom Nicholas II had appointed as a general, and took control of the army. And that was the end! Before this, the generals were blamed for military failures; now they began to blame the tsar. Nicholas II made another mistake when he transferred control of the empire to his wife Alexandra instead of the prime minister. Firstly, Alexandra was German, which didn’t sound very good, because Russia was at war with Germany. Then Alexandra began to communicate too closely with Grigori Rasputin, a healer with whose help she hoped to cure her son of hemophilia.
However, Rasputin had other intentions and soon began to interfere in national problems. In December 1916, worried Russians assassinated Rasputin. But this changed the situation little.
At the same time, the long war damaged the Russian economy.
In February 1917, inflation and food shortages sparked mass protests that quickly turned into revolution. Nikolai left the front line to return home. But on the way he had to sign an abdication of the throne.
The provisional government took over, but failed to solve the problems that caused the revolution. A second revolution led by Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik Party followed in November 1917. She overthrew the provisional government. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, promised the Russian people “peace, bread and land.”
Lenin also entered into negotiations with Germany, leading to the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended Russia's involvement in the First World War. Russia ceded part of Ukraine, Finland, Poland and the Baltic territories to Germany. In exchange, Germany retreated from Russia.
The First World War led to the collapse of three empires and the creation of several new states 
The First World War changed European and Asian borders forever. This led to the fall of three empires and the creation of several countries. The German, Ottoman and Russian empires collapsed at the end of the war.
Poland became independent from the Russian Empire, and Austria-Hungary was divided into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Austria lost land to Italy and Czechoslovakia and became landlocked.
Bulgaria has given up its coastline in the Mediterranean Sea. Hungary lost most of its land in Czechoslovakia and part of Romania.
Complete collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Her land was divided between Great Britain and France. Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, Greece, Hungary, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovenia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey and United The United Arab Emirates were either entirely or part of the empire.
Renaming everything German in the US 
Before the declaration of war German was the second most spoken language in the United States after English. However, anti-German sentiment following the declaration of war quickly led to a ban on the German language.
The language has been removed from the curriculum of many American schools, and German books became illegal. Music dealers also refused to sell German songs. Anti-German sentiments spread to everything - everything was renamed. Even dogs were affected. German Shepherds were renamed Alsatians, after the Alsace region in France, where they were once bred. Meanwhile, the dachshund was renamed the "badger dog" and the "freedom puppy." The dog itself became a personification of Germany and was used to represent Germany in political cartoons. There has also been evidence that some dachshunds have been stoned to death in the UK.
Trench warfare 
During the First World War, machine guns began to be widely used. To protect themselves, soldiers quickly learned to shoot from trenches that connected into long trenches. As the war progressed, up to three additional trenches were dug before the original trench. Thus, the enemy would still have to deal with three more trenches even if he managed to defeat the front trench.
The longest trenches were on the Western Front, from the coast of Belgium to France and to the coast of Switzerland. It was impossible to bypass the trench, so the only option was a frontal attack. These were suicide missions because both sides defended their front trenches with barbed wire and machine guns.
The attacking infantry was usually supported by heavy artillery, which itself quickly became a problem and even contributed to the failure of the attacks. The artillery storm signaled to the enemy that an assault was underway, forcing the enemy to quickly strengthen their positions.
The attacking army's artillery assault also slowed down the infantry because shells exploded in front of them.
Tanks appeared 
Trench warfare quickly led to a stalemate. No one won and no one lost. Both sides continued to hide in their trenches and make frontal attacks, which almost always ended in disaster. Then the tanks appeared.
Before the war, proposals to build tanks in England, France and Germany were rejected. However, during the war, England and France worked secretly and independently to develop the tank, hoping to use it to defeat the enemy.
England was the first to create a practical tank, which it deployed at the Battle of the Somme on September 15, 1916. The Germans fled at the sight of the tanks, which broke through two of the three German trenches. But the tanks had to retreat due to problems with command and control. They weren't perfect either. The stuffiness and toxic fumes were a big problem for their crews, and the tanks often broke down.
Of the 50 deployed, half broke down before the attack.
Germany soon became accustomed to tanks and developed anti-tank weapons and tactics. However, it was not enough to stop the thousands of tanks deployed by the Allies. In contrast, Germany deployed only 20. Allied tanks broke through the German trenches, forcing them to surrender. Essentially, the machine guns drove the soldiers into the trenches, and the tanks drove them out.
Interesting fact: Tanks were originally called land ships. They are now called tanks because the British military told its workers that they were building "mechanized water tanks" to transport water to British troops in the deserts of today's Iraq. Workers shortened "mechanized water tanks" to "water tanks" and then "tanks."
First world war they didn’t name the world 
In the US they called it the European War, but everyone else called it the Great War. The first mention of "World War" came from the US after American newspapers began using the name when the US became involved in 1917.
The war was called “The Great” because of the large number of warring parties. It was believed that this was the war that would end the evil of the German state. How wrong they were. Besides the Great War, the war was also called the "Great War for Civilization"
The growing role of the United States 
The war destroyed the industries and economies of Germany, Russia, Great Britain and France. With the exception of Germany, the other three were dependent on supplies from the US.
The Allies bought so much from the US that the American economy switched from producing civilian goods to military goods. By the time the war ended, the Allies were heavily in debt to the United States.
For example, Russia was indebted to France, which was indebted to the USA and Great Britain. France was more indebted to Britain than it was to the United States, but Britain itself was deeply indebted to the United States. France wanted to pay off its debts to the USA and Great Britain with money that Russia owed. However, Lenin refused to pay because the tsarist government, not his, was taking on the debt.
On the other hand, Britain depended on money owed by France and Italy to repay the US. But France could not pay because Russia did not pay. France tried to pay off its debts through Germany. But Germany had no money and they could only make money if they exported goods to the US. However, in the 1920s, the US suffered from a recession and was unable to purchase goods imported from Germany.
Things got so bad that the US gave money to Germany in 1924 so Germany could pay its reparations to France and Britain. In turn, France and Great Britain used the money to pay off their debts to the United States.
At the same time, most of the belligerents abandoned the gold standard at the beginning of the war, which led to the devaluation of their currencies towards the end. This left the US with the most gold, and thus the country became the custodian of the global gold standard.
Significance of the Treaty of Versailles 
The Treaty of Versailles formalized the end of the First World War.
Under the treaty, Germany was required to pay 269 billion gold marks (German currency at the time), equivalent to 100,000 tons of gold, to the Allies. It also forced Germany to take the blame for the war. Reparations were subsequently reduced to 112 billion gold marks, but this did little to dampen the sentiments of opponents in Germany.
This debt placed a heavy burden on Germany. In fact, the country stopped paying it in 2010.
There was an economic crisis in Germany, unemployment, inflation. But the country had to pay reparations to the victors and take the blame for the war upon itself. The German population did not want to do this.
These factors contributed to the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. The Nazis promised to lift the people out of poverty. Hitler, having come to power, refused to pay reparations. Instead, he created an army and started World War II.
