The growth of cities removes people more and more from nature. Residents of medieval cities were closer to natural nature, despite the fact that these cities were a solid mass of stone and, due to the density of buildings, there was no room for gardens and parks. But they were small, and immediately behind the fortress walls fields, meadows, and forests began.[...]
Urban growth, rapid development of industry and transport, chemicalization and land reclamation Agriculture cause intense environmental pollution.[...]
Urban growth is stimulated by the development and concentration of industrial production. In the USSR, the multiplicity of industrial production in 1975 was in relation to previous periods - 131 by 1913, 17 by 1940, 2.15 by 1965.[...]
With the growth of cities and the development of production, the technogenic transformation of the environment has become global, currently being one of the reasons for the decline and extinction of many animal species, including birds. The diversity of technogenic impacts on natural ecosystems leads to the formation of many specific forms of technogenic biocenoses (Motorina, 1979), which have not only negative, but also positive effects on avifauna. With a significant reduction in natural wetland habitats, technogenic reservoirs (settlements, biological ponds, irrigation and filtration fields, sludge reservoirs, cooling ponds, fire-fighting reservoirs, ash dumps, etc.) have a special positive effect on birds, which often act as the most important habitats for birds (Mishchenko, Sukhanova, 1991; Spiridonov, 2002). It should be noted that man-made reservoirs are an integral and important part of any city, many industrial enterprises, with the increase of which the number of these unique biotopes will increase. Thus, in Mordovia in 1997 there were 46 units of treatment facilities, and in 1999 there were already 56.[...]
With the growth of cities, lower employment of the population in production, easy accessibility of automobile and air vehicles, the area and importance in human life of recreational landscapes used by people for recreation are increasing.[...]
With the growth of cities, the average travel distance and transport mobility of the population increases, the volume of freight traffic increases sharply, and therefore the number of vehicles and traffic flows increases significantly.[...]
With the growth of cities and the creation of new ones, the need for urban areas is constantly increasing; approximately every five years the size of residential land in cities increases by an average of 20%. [...]
With the growth of cities in the era of capitalism, waste began to be first buried in the courtyard, then periodically removed from the cesspools. By the beginning of the 19th century, special brick cesspools were built in large cities to collect garbage and sewage. Wastewater and, accordingly, the problem of its removal and purification did not exist at all. In 1810, sanitary technology was enriched with the invention of the water closet. Initially it was used on a very limited scale, but then it began to be increasingly used in the most comfortable houses of European capitals. In the middle of the 19th century, a decree was issued in London requiring the installation of water closets in all houses (Dunbar, 1910). It was assumed that the wastewater from them would flow into underground cellars, the contents of which would continue to be periodically cleaned and disposed of in landfills. No one imagined what actually happened. After this was put into effect, the cesspools quickly filled with fecal waters, which began to flow out of them, spreading a disgusting stench around them. It was necessary to urgently lay pipes through which fecal waste flowed into the Thames. From that moment on, the problem of pollution of water bodies with wastewater arose.[...]
As the city and its population grow, the number of species feeding on waste increases in urban ecosystems: necrophages, coprophages, saprophages.[...]
Along with the growth of the world population, urbanization was the dominant trend in human development in the 20th century. In the 50s, the population of cities was 600 million people, at the end of the 80s - more than 2 billion people (43-45% of the world population). Mass urbanization is a 20th-century phenomenon: before 1900, only about 14% of the population lived in cities. In this case, three demographic processes play a significant role: migration from rural areas to the city, natural growth of the urban population and the transformation of rural areas into cities. If these demographic trends continue, the number of city residents will double in 20-30 years. At the same time, urban growth (Fig. 2.1) is largely characteristic of third world countries (three out of five cities with a population of about 15 million people are located in developing countries).[...]
In the 19th century, due to the growth of cities and the pollution of rivers from the discharge of wastewater into them, irrigation fields began to be built again in the industrial centers of Europe.[...]
Rapid urbanization and urban growth over the past 50 years have changed the face of the Earth more than any other human activity in history. Cities are characterized by high population density (up to 20-30 people per 1 km compared to rural areas - 0.5-1). Even in developing countries, cities are growing much faster than the overall population. The land area occupied by cities varies, according to various estimates, from 1 to 5%; this relatively small value, influencing its vast environments at the inlet and outlet, changes the nature of waterways, forests, fields, the World Ocean, and the atmosphere. Moreover, the influence can be both direct and indirect. The heat, dust and other air pollutants generated as a result of the functioning of cities significantly change the climate of cities compared to the climate of the surrounding area. The city tends to be warmer, more cloudy, and has less sunshine than the surrounding countryside. Urban construction is a leading factor in soil erosion.[...]
Rapid urbanization and urban growth in the last half century have probably changed the face of the Earth more than any other human activity in history. Two maps (Figure 2.22) show the extent of urbanization and urban influence in the United States. On Map A (p. 92), areas with a population density of 50 or more people per square mile are covered with shading of varying frequencies. Rice. 2.22, B is a photo map composed of negatives received at night from a satellite; dark areas - cities, suburbs and densely populated rural areas, illuminated by electric light. Essentially, this map shows the density of energy distribution (electricity usage). Zones with energy densities reaching urban levels now stretch in a continuous strip from Boston to Washington, from Pittsburgh to Cleveland and Detroit, along the western and southern shores of Lake Michigan, the eastern coast of Florida and sections of the California coast.[...]
Thus, the rapid growth of cities and the rapid development of the construction industry have further alienated man from nature. This process has gained such powerful momentum that it is unlikely to be stopped.[...]
At current rates of urban growth, the ratio of solving these problems is generally approximately 1:100:1000, with the first problem being solved 5 or more years in advance, the third - daily.[...]
In the conditions of constant growth of cities and industrial centers, when a person is surrounded by glass, reinforced concrete and synthetic materials for many hours, the role of living plants in the interior is especially important. Plants create the illusion of contact with nature; The beauty of their shape, pleasant smell and calm green color have a beneficial effect on the central nervous system, helping to cope with a bad mood or a stressful state. But the most important are the sanitary and hygienic functions of plants. It has been proven that plants absorb dust, clean indoor air from carbon dioxide, where there is almost 20 times more of it than in the open air, contribute to humidification and ionization of the air, reducing its temperature, but what is especially valuable is that they suppress and destroy many harmful microorganisms due to the release of special volatile substances - phytoncides.[...]
The development of production, urban growth and human influence on the natural environment require increased attention to the protection of atmospheric air. The objectives of the legislation of the Russian Federation are to regulate public relations in this area in order to maintain cleanliness and improve the condition of the atmospheric air, prevent and reduce harmful chemical, physical, biological and other effects on the atmosphere that cause adverse consequences for the population, flora and fauna, as well as strengthening legality in the field of atmospheric air protection.[...]
The book states that the growth of the city is accompanied by the development and concentration of industrial production, which is combined with the continuous development and introduction of new substances, preparations, materials and products made from them into all areas of the economy and everyday life of the population. At the same time, freight and passenger transportation is significantly increasing. All this leads to the fact that a large number of harmful substances are released into the atmosphere of cities. chemical substances, the soil and water of open reservoirs are polluted. The influence of air, water and soil pollution on people's living conditions and health is shown. A system of measures is given to protect the city's air basin, to protect water bodies from pollution by urban runoff, and soil from contamination by waste. Issues of combating urban noise and measures to protect residential areas from intense noise impacts are also considered. Instrumental and computational methods of sanitary research in the field of sanitary protection environment of a modern city.[...]
The development of industry, the growth of cities and towns, the creation of new industrial and agricultural areas are causing a significant increase in water consumption in our country. Open sources of water supply, the quality of which does not always meet state standards, are becoming increasingly practical. In this regard, most water supply systems are equipped with treatment facilities that improve quality natural waters.[ ...]
Of some interest for the ecology of the city are the albedo values of some building materials: sandstone - 18%, gray granite - 35-40, slate - 8, gravel - 13, asphalt - 10-20%, etc. This concept plays an important role when considering a number of environmental problems (global warming, desertification), since catastrophic deforestation, an increase in the area of anthropogenic deserts, the growth of cities and industrial zones lead to a change in the albedo of the earth's surface.[...]
The problem of wastewater treatment has arisen for a long time. The growth of cities, concentration and the increase in the number of industrial enterprises forced many European countries back in the 18th-19th centuries to adopt some special laws and rules for water protection, sometimes very strict. For example, in Russia it was required that fish live in the outlet ponds of sewage treatment plants of textile factories. In the absence of accurate and sensitive methods of chemical analysis, such a natural biological indicator of water purity was quite reliable. In Fraction, an industrial enterprise has the right to take water from the river only downstream from the place of discharge of its own wastewater, which, naturally, forces companies to take care of their high-quality cleaning.[...]
In the Soviet Union there are also large associations of cities and industrial centers, for example Donbass, Dnepropetrovsk - Dneprodzerzhinsk, Moscow agglomeration; Recently, rapid growth of cities and industry has been characteristic of the Middle Volga region from Saratov to Kazan.[...]
In the era of feudalism and during the development of capitalism, with the growth of cities and industry, due to increased water consumption and the lack of sewerage, the sanitary condition of cities sharply deteriorated. This caused epidemics in cities.[...]
The development of industrial production led to the rapid growth of cities and urban populations. There was a need to create recreational areas, i.e. parks, city gardens, public gardens and other green areas.[...]
In modern conditions of rapid industrial development, urban growth and the development of new areas, the impact on environment. OIO, in particular, is manifested in a sharp increase in harmful emissions entering the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources. The atmosphere is one of the main environmental systems; its cleanliness is a necessary condition for maintaining the health of the people. The Soviet state is constantly concerned about preventing air pollution. This is reflected in the Constitution of the USSR and in the USSR Law on the Protection of Atmospheric Air.[...]
The amount of household waste is constantly increasing due to the growth of cities. For example, Polish specialists conducted two-year studies (1965-1966) to determine the accumulation of garbage in different cities, depending on the size of the city. The results obtained are presented in table. 10. For comparison, data are also provided for the cities of Germany.[...]
The share of forests of the first group gradually increases with the development of industry and the growth of cities, while the share of the third group decreases. Part of the forests was transferred to collective and state farms for use. They make up approximately 4% of the total forest area.[...]
After the Great October Socialist Revolution, along with the growth of cities, faster construction of sewerage began. Currently, the throughput capacity of Moscow treatment plants exceeds 4 million m3/day and continues to increase.[...]
After the Great October Socialist Revolution, along with the growth of cities, faster construction of sewers began. If in 1917 18 cities had sewerage systems with a total length of networks of about 1,500 km and a wastewater flow of 150 thousand m3/day, then in 1963 there were already over 1,000 cities and workers’ settlements with sewers with a network length of about 20,000 km and daily wastewater flow is about 15 million l3; the amount of industrial wastewater discharged was about 20 million m3!day.[...]
One of the most important global problems is urbanization, or the rapid growth of cities and urban populations. This process falls into the category of major global changes. In 1996 urban population the world amounted to 2.64 billion people, or 46% of the total population. Against the background of the overall growth of the world population, the urban population for 1990-1995. increased at a rate of 2.5% per year, while rural - only 0.8%. Every day, about 150 thousand people are added to the urban population of developing countries of the world.[...]
In the second half of the 19th century, the rapid development of industry, together with the growth of cities, led to severe pollution of rivers with wastewater. This caused great damage to both water supplies and fisheries. In addition, trawler fishing organized on a massive scale has led to a sharp decrease in fish catch in the seas. From this time on, the study of the life activity of small plants and animals begins, spending their entire lives in water.[...]
The influence of human economic activity on the karst process. The growth of the city and the development of territories previously considered unsuitable for urban planning purposes are inevitably accompanied by a serious human impact on the geological environment. This leads to a significant change in relief, destruction of surface microforms, soil cover, disruption of the clay-loamy cover of cover deposits, and changes in the physical and mechanical properties of soils and hydrogeological conditions. Ultimately, all this often causes the activation of dangerous geological processes, and in particular karst and suffusion [Abdrakhmanov, Martin, 1993; Karst..., 2002].[...]
The scientific and technological revolution, high rates of production development and urban growth are causing an increasing scale of human impact on the natural environment. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR, in the interests of present and future generations, our country is taking the necessary measures to maintain clean air and improve the environment. The Soviet state carries out a complex of scientific, technical, economic, social and other measures aimed at preventing and eliminating air pollution.[...]
Environmental pollution is increasing due to an increase in the volume of household waste, the growth of cities as the most powerful sources of pollution, and the intensification of agricultural production. Pollution provokes an increase in morbidity, triggering the mechanism of natural selection leading to a change (deterioration) of the gene pool. The fight against pollution, in turn, is associated with a significant increase in unproductive costs.[...]
The overwhelming majority of city dwellers prefer to relax, spend their holidays outside the city, in the lap of nature - in a more natural ecological environment. But the stay there is short-lived, truly clean places are becoming fewer and fewer, and the desire to combine pastoralism with comfort makes such a vacation more and more expensive. In addition, in popular recreation areas the permissible recreational load is rapidly growing and they are easily turning into an extension of the city. In developed countries in the last third of the 20th century. Along with the slowdown in urbanization, there is a process of territorial deconcentration of the population: not only movement from megacities to suburban areas, but the growth of cities in peripheral areas.[...]
The chemical composition of natural waters is also influenced by human activities. The rapid growth of cities, industrial facilities, the construction of canals, reservoirs, etc. disrupt the natural hydrochemical regime and change the composition of natural waters.[...]
Characteristic features of the modern stage of social development are the rapid growth of cities and the increase in the number of people living in them. In urban settlements, a special environment for human life is formed - the urban (urbanized) environment.[...]
One of the main processes characterizing urbanization is the emergence and growth of cities, an increase in the number of urban residents mainly due to migration of people from rural areas.[...]
The modern rapid development of industry, agriculture, transport, as well as the growth of cities is accompanied by enormous discharges of polluted water. In the absence of appropriate measures to reduce pollutants in wastewater, their dilution in natural reservoirs becomes insufficient. Large concentrations of harmful impurities prevent the self-purification of water, and its pollution progresses rapidly.[...]
However, an ever-increasing population, the development of manufacturing industries and the growth of cities necessitate the import of nutritious foods from less populated to more populated countries. On the other hand, the further development of one-sided productivity of domestic animals entails the impossibility of crossing the known boundaries of equilibrium, the consequence of which is diseases that pose an enormous danger to both animals and humans.[...]
Since then, the garbage has been stored in various storage facilities in rural areas. As a result of the growth of cities, free space in their surroundings decreased, and the unsanitary condition of landfills became dangerous. Free-standing landfills have been replaced by waste storage pits. About 90% of waste in the United States is still landfilled.[...]
In urban environments, the car is a source of warming the surrounding air. If 100 thousand cars are moving in a city at the same time, then this is equal to the effect produced by 1 million liters hot water. Exhaust gases from cars, containing warm water vapor, contribute to climate change in the city. Higher steam temperatures increase heat transfer by the moving medium (thermal convection), resulting in increased precipitation over the city. The influence of the city on the amount of precipitation is especially clearly visible from its natural increase, which occurs in parallel with the growth of the city. Over a ten-year observation period in Moscow, for example, 668 mm of precipitation fell per year, in its vicinity -572 mm, in Chicago - 841 and 500 mm, respectively.[...]
Improving forms and improving quality medical care- a very significant aspect of urban growth. Of particular note is the proximity of outpatient care to a person’s place of residence and the high qualifications of specialized pre-medical and medical intervention. Large medical complexes in cities provide unlimited opportunities laboratory diagnostics and application modern methods treatment. In the city, the activities of sanitary and epidemiological institutions are being improved, ensuring constant monitoring of the implementation of sanitary norms and rules.[...]
Water resources. The development of industry, the transfer of agriculture to an industrial basis, and the growth of cities contribute to constant water consumption. Every day, humanity consumes up to 7 billion tons of water, which corresponds in weight to the total amount of minerals mined per year. The main consumers of water are the chemical, petrochemical, pulp and paper industries, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, energy, and land reclamation. In 1985, our country used 282 km3 of water for various needs, including more than 80 km3 consumed by industry. The classification of water according to its intended purpose is presented in Fig. 4.5.[...]
The combined sewerage system is a combination of combined and separate systems. This is explained by the fact that with the growth of the city, domestic and industrial waters from new districts of the municipal system are discharged into the general drainage system, and storm water is directed through an independent drainage network to the nearest reservoirs. With such a system, part of the city districts has a general alloy system, and the other part (new districts) has a separate one.[...]
During the period of feudalism, practically no drainage structures were built. Sewage was either collected in special containers - cesspools, or poured onto the streets. It is known that the cities of Europe “sank in mud.” Industrial development and urban growth in Europe in the 19th century. led to the widespread construction of drainage canals. In Paris their length was: in 1806 - 23.5 km, in 1858 - 170 km. From the beginning of the 19th century. In England, measures are being taken to improve the sanitary improvement of cities.[...]
Experts believe that the coming changes in society will manifest themselves, first of all, in the following: spending on military purposes will decrease; there will be shifts in the structure of employment: the trend of urban growth and an increase in the share of the urban population will be reversed; with the deepening of the transition to an environmentally oriented economy, the principle of sustainable development will gradually overshadow economic growth as the focus of economic policy; the criteria for assessing progress will change; there will be a transformation of personal priorities and values; International cooperation will increase. These are the general characteristics of the future sustainable society, which are given by the staff of the Vorldwatch Institute.[...]
After the Great October Socialist Revolution, widespread construction of municipal and industrial water pipelines began in the country. The water supply of cities and industrial centers developed especially intensively after 1928 due to the rapid development of large-scale industry, accompanied by the growth of cities and workers' settlements. Large filtration stations were built in Moscow, Leningrad, Rostov-on-Don, Sverdlovsk, Novosibirsk, Gorky, Kyiv and many other cities.[...]
The turning point in the development of the territory of the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia was the construction at the end of the 19th century. railway. The road, which accelerated the agricultural development of Siberia, as well as the formation of settlements along it, most of which were subsequently transformed into cities, passed through the forest-steppe zone. The table, which shows the growth of the urban population in the cities of Western Siberia in the 19th - early 20th centuries, shows the growth trend of cities located along the railway.[...]
Purposeful use of territories, their rational distribution for various economic functions in accordance with natural features have always constituted the essence of urban planning activities, the subject of management and optimization of the territorial organization of production, settlement and recreation areas. As cities grow and negative changes in the state of the environment change, the content that is included in the concept of “rational use of territories” changes. According to the traditional view, it meant, first of all, a fairly intense functional load on urban areas in order to save land resources. However, this or that territory cannot withstand anthropogenic loads to the same extent and does not experience these loads to the same extent. In this regard, the environmental aspect when considering the problem of rational use of the territory becomes of great importance.
1. The process of growing the share of the urban population, increasing the role of cities and spreading the urban lifestyle is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) emancipation
D) adaptation
2.Natural population growth is:
A) the ratio of fertility to mortality
B) the difference between fertility and mortality
C) the difference between the number of people entering and leaving the country
D) the ratio of those who entered the country to the number of births per year
3. Movement of the population across the territory is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) recreation
D) emancipation
4. The Slavic linguistic group of peoples includes:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Altaians
5. In the Asian part of Russia live:
A) Karelians
B) Chuvash
D) Buryats
6. The peoples of the North Caucasus include:
A) Bashkirs
B) Chechens
B) Karelians
D) Udmurts
7.Which of the following peoples belongs to the Indo-European language family:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Kalmyks
D) Tatars
8.The smallest people in number are:
A) Tatars
B) Russians
D) Chuvash
A) 7 thousand people
B) 3 thousand people
B) 12 thousand people
D) 30 thousand people
10. The largest urban agglomeration in Russia is:
A) Moscow
B) Samara
B) Nizhny Novgorod
D) Novosibirsk
11. Specify natural area, within which the largest rural settlements are located:
A) tundra
D) desert
12.Indicate the region through which the Main Settlement Strip passes:
A) European North
B) Central Russia
B) North of the Far East
D) North of Eastern Siberia
13.Select a subject of the Russian Federation with the highest share of urban population:
A) Kalmykia
B) Moscow region
B) Magadan region
D) Murmansk region
14.Lowest population density in the region:
A) Rostov
B) Vladimirskaya
B) Magadan
D) Moscow
15.Select a region in which migration population growth is observed:
A) Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
B) Moscow region
B) Magadan region
D) Khabarovsk region
16.Select a region in which there is a migration outflow of the population:
A) Moscow region
B) Magadan region
D) Leningrad region
17.The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
A) high natural growth
B) low natural growth
B) zero natural increase
D) negative natural growth
18. Which republic of the Russian Federation has high natural growth:
A) Karelia
B) Yakutia
B) Dagestan
19.Religion occupying leading place by the number of believers in Russia:
B) Orthodoxy
B) Buddhism
D) shamanism
20. A significant portion of believers profess Islam in:
A) Karelia
B) Kalmykia
D) Yakutia
Answers:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A B B B G B B B B A B B B C B C D B B B
The first factor
influencing
— environmental influence. Half of the world's population lives in lowlands, 1/3 in coastal areas. The majority of the population settles along the river banks. People inhabit areas with a favorable climate. Therefore, the most densely populated states are located in subtropical and subequatorial climates, as well as in the temperate south. Second factor
– economic. The availability of resources (land, forest, minerals, etc.) has always attracted people, this explains the development of lowlands by people. Third factor
The world's rural population has traditionally been larger, but in the 21st century the population of villages and cities has leveled off. (3.4 billion rural and 3.4 billion urban) By 2050, a significant increase in the urban population is expected. At the same time, city dwellers occupy only 3% of the land surface. The global effect of urbanization has become most noticeable in economically developed regions of the world. Thus, the level of urbanization has already exceeded 80% in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe.
Among less developed regions, Latin America and the Caribbean has an extremely high level of urbanization (78%). In contrast, Africa and Asia have urban populations of 38% and 41% respectively. Urbanization rates are expected to increase in all major areas over the next decade, with the pace being faster in Africa and Asia. Urban populations are highly concentrated in a limited number of countries. In 2007, three-quarters of the world's 3.3 billion urban residents lived in 25 countries, with urban populations ranging from 29 million to South Africa up to 561 million people in China. Top three countries with the largest number of urban residents: . Today, 35% of the world's urban population lives in these countries. Russia is also on the list of 25 countries.
agglomerations Megalopolis represents a horizontal line of large and small cities merged into a single line. Linearity is one of the distinguishing features of a megalopolis from a metropolis. Currently there is a phenomenon such as suburbanization . This is the movement of part of the wealthy population to the suburbs. For example: Rublevskoe highway in Moscow. Population density is closely related to urbanization. The world average is 40 people. per km2. But basically the entire land population is located on 7% of the continents' area. 90% of the population lives in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres. IN modern world Migration became commonplace. Migration - This is a population movement. The departure of people from their country for permanent residence is called emigration, the entry is called immigration. Since 2013, the process of migration of residents of Asia and Africa to European countries has become a natural disaster for the European Union. According to official estimates, since January 2015, 1.2 million people have asked for asylum in EU countries. The unprecedented influx of migrants has become a serious burden for many EU countries. By the end of 2016, a new wave of emigration of up to 3 million people is expected. This is more than the population of Lithuania, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg or Malta. The burden of receiving and servicing migrants is distributed differently among EU countries. The most serious burden falls on Germany, France and Sweden. People strive for Germany because it is a democratic country with a strong economy, a country where the role of both Christianity and religious freedom is strong, and in which you can get both a good education and appropriate medical care. The main motive of migrants when moving is to find a place to work. These migrations are called labor migrations. In the 19th century, from many backward countries there was "muscle leak" "brain drain"
SEE MORE:
Rate of development of the urban population. Concentration of population in large cities. Creation of urban agglomerations. Megacities as the highest link in the urbanization process. Main factors of urbanization. The manifestation of urbanization in cities, its negative impacts.
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
The process and extent of global urbanization
Global features of the urbanization process.
Quantifying the impact of the concentration of economic activity in cities on productivity in the regions of the country. Features of urbanization in modern Russia.
Urban and rural population. Urbanization
Components of urban population change.
course work, added 11/28/2014
Urbanization. Cities of the world
Urbanization as a process based on the growth of cities and urban populations in all regions of the world. History of the emergence of cities. Urban agglomerations and megalopolises. Rates and levels of urbanization.
The transition from a “spot” city to urban agglomerations.
presentation, added 05/15/2013
Urban development in the 21st century
Definition of the concept city. The essence of urbanization and indicators of urbanization of the Earth's population. Short story and urbanization prospects. The first steps in solving the problem of urban development in the future. Organization of effective environmental monitoring.
test, added 05/10/2009
Urbanization as a global process
The concept of urbanization, its essence and features, history of origin and development, current state.
The main reasons and prerequisites for increasing the share of citizens in the state, the nature of urbanization in developing countries and the features of its course in Russia.
abstract, added 03/31/2009
Urbanization and its role in the life of society. Human socialization
The concept of urbanization, its role in the life of society. Humanistic approach to the interpretation of socialization. Levels, rates and prospects of urbanization.
The concept of socialization. The city as a mesocomponent of the human socialization environment. Level analysis of socialization factors.
abstract, added 10/10/2008
Family life cycle. Factors of urbanization
Demographic forecasts for Russia. The concept of the family life cycle: history of formation and methodological possibilities. Main factors of urbanization. Phases of the family life cycle according to Duval. The theory of social mobility. Dynamics of intrafamily roles.
abstract, added 09/27/2012
Urbanization: perceptions and reality
The concept of urbanization and city.
The urbanization process, its causes, properties and features in the context of urban formations. Public housing for the poor in the United States. Problems of social housing complexes using the example of the Pruitt-Igoe neighborhood in St. Louis.
abstract, added 12/26/2014
Migration: essence and phenomenon
Population migration as a movement of population associated with a change of place of residence. Reasons, types, types of migration flows in the Russian Federation. The impact of urbanization on internal migration.
Main sources of migration control. Types of international population migration.
presentation, added 03/06/2011
Sociology of the city
Familiarization with the history of the development of urban sociology as an independent branch of knowledge.
Consideration of a number of socio-historical conditions of urbanization and their modern content; studying problems in this area.
Sociology of urban lifestyle.
course work, added 06/08/2014
Features of communication in the city
Language as the main means of communication in a modern city. Factors influencing the formation of speech of metropolitan residents. Analysis of the influence of urbanization on the specifics of urban communication. The role of mass information communications in the life of a modern city.
abstract, added 08/19/2010
115. Megalopolises of the USA
Another important feature of the urbanization process in the United States is the formation of megalopolises– extensive urbanized zones of strip-like configuration, which are formed as a result of the actual merging of many neighboring agglomerations of different ranks. Typically, such urbanized strips stretch along the most important transport routes and multi-highways, or some kind of economic axes.
The USA can be called the birthplace of megalopolises.
It was here that the North-Eastern, Lakeside and California megalopolises formed and were studied. Table 59 gives a general idea of each of them.
The oldest and most studied of them is the Northeastern (Atlantic) megalopolis. This urbanized strip was called a megalopolis by the famous geographer Jean Gottmann, who borrowed this name from Ancient Greece. At the extreme points of its extension it is also called the Boswash megalopolis, i.e.
e. Boston - Washington (Fig. 180). It included the CMSA of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and dozens of PMSA. The core of the Lakeside megalopolis, often referred to as Chipits (Chicago - Pittsburgh), is the CMSA of Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland and also dozens of PMSA.
And in the California megalopolis, also called Sansan (San Francisco - San Diego), the CMSAs of San Francisco and Los Angeles stand out.
Scientific forecasts For quite some time now, they began to assume that, firstly, there should be an expansion of the three named megalopolises and, secondly, the formation of new ones in other parts of the country is quite likely.
Now we can say with complete confidence that such forecasts were justified (Fig. 181).
§ 66. URBANIZATION
This figure shows that the Northeastern megalopolis has advanced significantly in a southern direction, Priozerny - in the northeast, and California - in both northern and southern directions. In addition, three new megalopolises have basically emerged - on the coasts of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. It is noteworthy that two megalopolises have actually become international, since they are located within both the United States and Canada.
Table 418
US MEGALOCOLIS
There is no need to imagine a megalopolis as a zone of continuous urban development.
On the contrary, such development usually occupies only a very small part (approximately 1/10) of its entire territory, while the rest of the space is occupied by cottages, fields, forests, transport routes, reservoirs, and vacant land.
Urbanization is a worldwide process
The main economic force in the world economy is labor resources. The first factor influencing formation labor resource — environmental influence. Half of the world's population lives in lowlands, 1/3 in coastal areas. The majority of the population settles along the river banks. People inhabit areas with a favorable climate.
Therefore, the most densely populated states are located in subtropical and subequatorial climates, as well as in the temperate south. Second factor – economic.
The availability of resources (land, forest, minerals, etc.) has always attracted people, this explains the development of lowlands by people. Third factor - employment. Industrial areas have a significantly larger population than others with similar conditions. The main form of population distribution people in the modern world are gradually becoming cities. Urbanization is the process of growth of cities and urban populations, strengthening of their economic role, and widespread urban lifestyle. The world's rural population has traditionally been larger, but in the 21st century the population of villages and cities has leveled off (3.4 billion).
rural and 3.4 billion urban) By 2050, a significant increase in the urban population is expected. At the same time, city dwellers occupy only 3% of the land surface. The global effect of urbanization has become most noticeable in economically developed regions of the world.
Thus, the level of urbanization has already exceeded 80% in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe.
Among less developed regions, Latin America and the Caribbean has an extremely high level of urbanization (78%). In contrast, Africa and Asia have urban populations of 38% and 41% respectively. Urbanization rates are expected to increase in all major areas over the next decade, with the pace being faster in Africa and Asia.
Urbanization
Urban populations are highly concentrated in a limited number of countries. In 2007, three-quarters of the world's 3.3 billion urban residents lived in 25 countries with urban populations ranging from 29 million to
people in South Africa to 561 million people in China. Top three countries with the largest number of urban residents: China, India and the United States of America. Today, 35% of the world's urban population lives in these countries.
Russia is also on the list of 25 countries. GIANT CITIES (unofficial data for 2015 from an unknown source)
Urbanization is closely related to the concept of huge cities. The satellites of big cities form agglomerations . Megalopolises have become the highest link in the urbanization process. Megalopolis represents a horizontal line of large and small cities merged into a single line.
Linearity is one of the distinguishing features of a megalopolis from a metropolis. Currently there is a phenomenon such as suburbanization . This is the movement of part of the wealthy population to the suburbs. For example: Rublevskoe highway in Moscow.
Population density is closely related to urbanization. The world average is 40 people. per km2. But basically the entire land population is located on 7% of the continents' area. 90% of the population lives in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres. In the modern world, migration has become a common occurrence. Migration - This is a population movement.
The departure of people from their country for permanent residence is called emigration, the entry is called immigration. Since 2013, the process of migration of residents of Asia and Africa to European countries has become a natural disaster for the European Union. According to official estimates, since January 2015, 1.2 million people have asked for asylum in EU countries. The unprecedented influx of migrants has become a serious burden for many EU countries. By the end of 2016, a new wave of emigration of up to 3 million people is expected.
This is more than the population of Lithuania, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg or Malta. The burden of receiving and servicing migrants is distributed differently among EU countries. The most serious burden falls on Germany, France and Sweden. People strive for Germany because it is a democratic country with a strong economy, a country where the role of both Christianity and religious freedom is strong, and where one can get both a good education and adequate medical care.
The main motive of migrants when moving is to find a place to work. These migrations are called labor migrations. In the 19th century, from many backward countries there was "muscle leak" in post-industrial society "brain drain"
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The importance of urbanization in modern society
Urbanization in in a broad sense represents a multifaceted socio-economic, demographic and geographical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. In a narrow sense, this is the growth of cities, mainly large ones, and an increase in the share of the urban population.
Modern urbanization occurs not only due to the classical pattern characteristic of past centuries, that is, thanks to visiting rural residents and foreigners.
Of particular importance are factors such as the transformation of rural settlements into urban ones and the formation of large-scale suburban areas that have all the characteristics of a city.
The consequence of this was the so-called suburbanization. This is the emergence of urban agglomerations (megacities), that is, territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements that form a vast area of continuous development. In fact, they are “super-cities” and consist of a core and a periphery.
The core of agglomerations is predominantly the capitals of states and important industrial centers. The population of such a sprawling city may represent a significant proportion of the population of the entire country. The first signs of suburbanization began to appear before World War II, as a form of escape of the wealthy from social ills big city.
Currently, about 25 large urban agglomerations with a population of over 10 million have formed on the planet.
people These are Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Tokyo, New York, Shanghai and Beijing, Bombay, Jakarta. The largest city in the world is Mexico City (25.8 million people). In our country, the Moscow agglomeration stands out, consisting of hundreds of urban and several hundred rural settlements.
Urbanization reaches its highest degree in megalopolises (the merger of several largest megacities), where you can get from city to city without leaving the city limits.
Such formations include Boswash (Boston - Washington), Tokaido (Tokyo - Osaka - Nagoya), California megalopolis, Rhine megalopolis, English megalopolis with cores - the London and Liverpool agglomerations.
Modern cities occupy 1% of the land area, but they contain half the world's population and most of the industry.
In the early 90s. In the 20th century, the level of urbanization in developed countries was about 72%, in developing countries - 33%. Now the situation is changing rapidly. As communications technology improves and investment in human capital increases, the growth of large cities in developing countries will continue.
According to the level of urbanization, the countries of the world are divided into two groups: highly urbanized with a share of urban population above 50% (North America, Australia, most countries Western Europe, Japan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, South Africa, etc.) and medium-urbanized with a share of the urban population below 20% (Afghanistan, Nepal, Laos, Ethiopia, Somalia, etc.).
There is also false urbanization, when the increase in urban population is not accompanied by sufficient job growth.
Yesterday's peasants join the ranks of the unemployed and begin to create slums within the city, which are called the “poverty belt.” Thus, 80% of the population of Addis Ababa, 70% of the population of Casablanca live in slums.
Growth and development of cities increasing the share of the urban population in the country over
Mostly false urbanization is used to characterize the situation in developing countries. It is associated not so much with the development of urban functions, but with the displacement of people from rural settlements as a result of relative agrarian overpopulation.
Hyperurbanization is represented by zones of uncontrolled development of urban formations and overload of the natural landscape, in which the ecological balance is disturbed.
If false urbanization is a problem in developing countries, then hyperurbanization is characteristic of developed countries. In Russia, both of these problems exist (less common is false urbanization, which has a specific form: the inability of cities to provide the arriving population with the required social infrastructure).
Russia is a country with a high level of urbanization. Urbanization in our country occurred due to three factors: natural growth, migration growth and administrative and territorial transformations (for example, the inclusion of rural settlements within cities).
Regions of the Russian Federation differ significantly in the degree of urbanization. A high proportion of the urban population is recorded in the Northwestern (83.5%) and Central (81.3%) federal districts, the minimum level of urbanization is characteristic of the North Caucasus (49.1%) and Southern (62.4%) districts . The lowest share of the urban population is registered in the Altai Republic (27.6%), the Chechen Republic (35%), and the Republic of Ingushetia (38.3%).
Urbanization in modern Russia is associated with certain contradictions:
— segregation of the poor population and their displacement to the “margins” of city life;
— growth of unemployment and internal migration: more people live in cities than they can “digest”;
— the supply of labor in cities significantly outstrips demand, which leads to the development of the unorganized sector of the economy engaged in small-scale production and services;
— an increase in the criminal sector, including the “shadow” economy and organized crime.
Despite the fact that the urban environment is improving, even in provincial cities, it is dangerous for children and adolescents.
The result of the Soviet urban planning doctrine is that microdistrict development does not allow for the organization of publicly controlled courtyard spaces: children and teenagers no longer walk in courtyards. The city's leisure infrastructure is not, for the most part, aimed at the social group of teenagers. Additional education, culture and sports are highly commercialized, and mass teenage public organizations are practically responsible.
However, city life and culture have become an integral part of the social environment.
The majority of Russians, being city dwellers, set the tone for the development of society, influence the system of social management, changes in the social environment, and, ultimately, the lives of new generations.
Currently, urbanization is due to the scientific and technological revolution, changes in the structure of productive forces and the nature of labor, deepening connections between types of activities, as well as information connections.
The urban environment provides a higher standard of quality of life compared to peripheral non-urban areas.
This is expressed in the greater development of transport, communications, healthcare and education, culture and the leisure industry. The concentration of economic, administrative and human resources creates the prerequisites for the active exchange of information, the emergence and dissemination of inventions. Therefore, cities have advantages for creating and implementing new technologies.
Accommodation educational institutions influences the development of territorial settlement systems.
This importance is especially clear in the example of small settlements. The school in the village closes and then the settlement itself dies, young parents move to those settlements where there is an opportunity to give their children an education, and in the dying village pensioners remain to live out their lives, and soon all that remains of the settlement is a postal address and abandoned farmland.
Unfortunately, this negative trend for the Russian settlement system is only growing. In 2014 alone, as part of the so-called optimization programs, 592 small schools were liquidated, until 2020.
It is planned to close another 3,639 educational organizations. Currently in Russia, almost 6 thousand settlements with a population of 300 to 1.5 thousand people do not have schools. Out of 940 settlements, getting to the nearest school takes more than 25 km.
Transformation processes in modern Russia have led to a discrepancy between the structure of education and the dynamics of settlement.
“The changing settlement system is becoming out of scale with social service networks designed and built in accordance with a stepped model of spatial organization.” An institutional imbalance arises, which is most noticeable in the system of basic general education. Therefore, a redesign of educational social network, subject to the guarantee of the rights of all citizens to education - compulsory, generally accessible and free - for townspeople and villagers.
Discrimination based on place of residence is unacceptable: rural and urban school education Various educational technologies can be used, but the results of schoolchildren upon completion of training must meet uniform requirements.
Overcoming the institutional imbalance can be facilitated by the restructuring of basic general education: both within the entire five-year cycle of the basic school, and within the academic year. Similar projects are built taking into account the capabilities of schoolchildren of different ages to daily or weekly pendulum migrations. A similar option for dividing by educational level is being successfully implemented in Finland, which occupies a leading position in PISA (International Student Assessment) results.
Researchers have put forward the concept of compression of the economic ecumene, which is based on the vastness of the territory of Russia and the insufficient funds for its development.
Therefore, it is necessary to abandon the development of the North and Siberia, limiting ourselves only to European Russia. The implementation of this concept is observed today in Russia: the economic space is concentrated around large socio-economic centers, the economic space is being compressed, mainly due to the reduction of peripheral rural settlements.
The reduction of the rural settlement system is transforming institutions of secondary general (complete) education.
The school begins to perform a missionary function, replacing the functions of disappearing social institutions (clubs, libraries, social care authorities).
The closure of educational institutions and the disappearance of villages leads to a reduction in functioning cultural and economic territorial space. These territories find themselves outside the boundaries of the country’s socio-economic life.
A study of the influence of urbanization processes on the functioning of an educational social institution showed that there are both positive and negative consequences of this process.
The urban settlement system promotes the concentration and advanced development of educational structures, on the one hand, and segregation, the displacement of the poor population to the “outskirts” of city life, on the other. The results of urbanization in the rural settlement structure are also of a dual nature: the intensive development of distance learning and self-education equalizes the chances of urban and rural youth to receive an equally high-quality education, but the reduction of educational infrastructure in rural areas significantly reduces the chances for rural youth.
The complexity and multifaceted nature of the urbanization process requires a balanced management approach, taking into account the accumulated foreign and domestic experience in resolving issues of the socio-territorial organization of society as a whole and the education system as its subsystem.
Sociology as a scientific discipline was formed in response to the challenges of the rapid industrial urbanization of the 19th century: the mass migration of people to cities, the severance of traditional social ties, the formation of new types of community, different from traditional patriarchal forms of solidarity, stimulated the formation of sociology.
Therefore, we can say that almost all classical sociology is essentially the sociology of the city.
Summary
Sociology of settlement is a field of sociological knowledge that studies the origin, essence, and patterns of functioning of cities and villages as integral systems.
A city is a type of settlement characterized by the presence of a single closed space containing a collection of dwellings (in ancient times the boundaries of such space were city walls), a large and high population density, a high degree of diversity and integration of the professional activities of residents, and the predominantly anonymous nature of their contacts.
A rural settlement community is the opposite of a city in all its main characteristics.
There is a relatively low territorial concentration of the population, a lower degree of socio-economic development, a small range of species labor activity, the primary occupation of people is agricultural labor, there is great professional and social homogeneity of the population.
Urbanization in a broad sense is a multifaceted socio-economic, demographic and geographical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society.
In a narrow sense, this is the growth of cities, mainly large ones, and an increase in the share of the urban population.
Self-test questions
1. Describe the essence and typology of cities.
2. What are the reasons for the emergence of cities?
Village: definition, functions, typology.
4. Why does the city alienate people?
5. Highlight the similarities and differences between urban and rural cultures.
Rural community, its features in Russia.
7. Culture and subcultures of the city, their role in personal development.
8. What is urbanization?
What are the features of education in urban and rural settings?
10. Describe the consequences of urbanization processes.
Burgess E. Urban growth: an introduction to the research project // Personality. Culture. Society. - 2002. - T. IV. — Vol. 1-2 (11-12).
The Accounts Chamber checked optimization in the field of healthcare, culture, education and social services // http://ach.gov.ru/press_center/news/21297
Abankina I.V.
Problems of primary school and the settlement system in Russia. //Education Issues. 2005. No. 2. pp. 2-19.
Pivovarov Yu.L. Compression of the “economic ecumene” of Russia // World Economy and International Relations. 2002. No. 4. P. 63-69.
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All rights belong to their authors.
Introduction
1. Urbanization process
2. The nature of urbanization in developing countries
3. World urbanization process
4. Features of urbanization in Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
Currently, almost half of the world's population (47 percent) lives in cities.
The number of urban residents is expected to increase by 2 percent annually between 2000 and 2015.
Population concentration, consumption structure, transport mode and economic activity in cities have a significant impact on the environment, mainly through resource consumption and waste generation.
At the same time, it is in cities that there are opportunities to ensure sustainable development of ever-increasing masses of people.
Urbanization is one of the most important components of socio-economic development.
For decades, urbanization in Russia was at first simply not recognized as one of the important processes in the formation of man, environment and society, and then in the 70-80s, it was considered within the framework of the formational features of the development of production and settlement systems with a significant underestimation of its global patterns and socio-cultural and civilizational foundations.
A philosophically untenable approach was established and carefully guarded, according to which urbanization is easily manageable because its patterns are established by leaders depending on certain goals they put forward.
Urbanization is the growth of cities, an increase in the share of the urban population in a country, region, world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities.
Thus, urbanization represents a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the life of society, its gradual transformation into a predominantly urban one in terms of the nature of work, the lifestyle and culture of the population, and the characteristics of the location of production. Urbanization is one of the most important components of socio-economic development.
Urbanization process
Urbanization of a country is a process of increasing the share of the urban population, which is accompanied by an increase in the economic, political and cultural importance of cities compared to rural areas.
There is a global trend towards urbanization. In most countries, it is a natural consequence and incentive for economic development going through the stages of industrialization and post-industrialization. Therefore, the level of urbanization, measured as the percentage of urban population to the total population of a country, is particularly high in developed countries and much lower in countries with low per capita income.
Humanity entered the 20th century already having an idea of the urban development boom, the painful consequences of population concentration in large cities, and their pathology.
It seemed to many that the clearly manifested shortcomings of big cities left them no chance for the future. A. Babel spoke about the inevitable future death of large cities. G. Wells predicted their disappearance (or, as he put it, “dispersal”)1.
At the same time, the rate of urbanization in developing countries is currently much higher than in developed countries. In 2000-2005
average annual urban population growth in low- and middle-income countries was 3.8 and 3.1%, respectively, compared with 0.1% in developed countries.
It should also be taken into account that in developing countries, where the population is higher, these percentages correspond to more of people.
As a result, by 2005, the vast majority—almost three quarters—of the world's 2.5 billion city dwellers lived in developing countries.
Urbanization has spread to all countries of the world. This process manifests itself in different social and geographical conditions and in different “geographical clothes”1.
At the same time, the main patterns of urbanization have general character. In its course, the process of formation of an urban environment with specific properties occurs.
The share of urban residents in the total population of low- and middle-income countries has grown rapidly from 22% in 1960.
up to 39% in 2005; it is expected that by 2015 it will exceed 50%. An approximate indicator of the contribution of cities to GDP is the total share of industrial and service products (mainly produced in cities) in GDP. Judging by this indicator, cities in developing countries already play a more important economic role than rural, mainly agricultural areas, since on average more than half of the GDP of developing countries is produced in industry and services. True, this is not yet true for all countries in the world.
Although rapid urban growth is occurring in almost every country in the world, levels of urbanization vary widely across geographic regions.
While most countries in Latin America are as urbanized as those in Europe (with 74% of the population living in cities), countries in South Asia, East Asia and Central Africa remain predominantly agricultural.
Most of the world's most populous cities are located in developing countries.
The table lists cities with a population of more than 7 million (2005 data). Note that many of them are in Asian countries where the population is large and per capita income is low (China, India, Indonesia).
These cities have a high concentration of poor people. Such cities are particularly vulnerable to complex social and environmental problems, including air pollution.
Particulate matter (SP) air pollutants are smoke, soot, dust and liquid droplets produced by fuel combustion and present in the air. The level of RF pollution, usually measured in micrograms per cubic meter, is one of the most important indicators of the quality of air that people breathe.
According to air quality standards developed by the World Health Organization, this figure should not exceed 90 micrograms per cubic meter. meter. In fact, in many cities this figure is many times exceeded (Appendix: Table No. 1).
High levels of high-frequency air pollution have a negative impact on human health.
It provokes diseases of the respiratory system, aggravates cardiovascular and other diseases. In the world as a whole, in 2005, this factor caused the premature death of at least 500,000 people, as well as 4-5 million new cases of bronchitis. The health risks for urban residents are especially high in developing countries such as China and India. According to some estimates, air quality is so poor in many Chinese cities that the economic losses caused by increased morbidity and mortality among urban residents across the country amount to about 5% of GDP.
According to other estimates made for 18 cities in Eastern and Central Europe, reducing the levels of dust and soot in the air of these cities to the maximum permissible standards set by the European Union would save the lives of 18,000 people annually and generate 1.2 billion in income.
dollars of income due to the reduction of morbidity and associated loss of working time.
The degree of air pollution depends on the level of technology development in the country and government measures to control pollution, mainly in the energy sector.
The use of less “dirty” fossil fuels (such as natural gas and low-sulfur coal), their more efficient and complete combustion, the increasing distribution of “clean”, renewable energy sources (energy of water, sun, wind, subsoil heat) are some of the main ways to combat air pollution without limiting economic growth. Compare this data with RF levels in largest cities these countries (Appendix - table No. 1).
Note that coal is considered one of the dirtiest energy sources, although much depends on its quality and combustion methods. Nuclear energy is the “cleanest” in many respects, but there is a serious problem of safe disposal of radioactive waste and the risk of radioactive contamination in the event of an accident. Sources with the least environmental impact, such as solar energy, are not shown as they still account for a small share of the world's electricity generation.
Another important source of high-frequency emissions into the atmosphere of cities is the combustion of fuel in internal combustion engines of cars.
This is particularly harmful to human health as pollutants are released almost at ground level. Cars are much more abundant in developed countries, where in 2006 there were 559 cars per 1,000 people, compared with 8 per 1,000 in low-income countries and 91 per 1,000 in middle-income countries.
However, the rapid increase in the number of cars in developing countries leads to severe air pollution, as they are mainly concentrated in a few large cities, many are in poor technical condition, and there is little or no control of exhaust emissions.
According to World Bank estimates, demand for gasoline in developing countries is growing 1.2 to 1.9 times faster than per capita income.
If for countries undergoing industrialization and urbanization processes the typical growth rate of per capita income is 6-8% per year, an annual increase in fuel consumption for cars by 10-15% is quite possible. For 10 years (1994-2004), an annual increase in the number of passenger cars on average by 10%, and for four years (2000-2004) the annual increase was 17.5%.
In the absence of effective measures to combat air pollution from exhaust gases, such dynamics will certainly lead to serious consequences for the health of citizens.
The nature of urbanization in developing countries
The "Third World" is becoming increasingly urbanized, the scene of an ongoing "urban revolution". This largely determines the most important directions of socio-economic progress of developing countries.
In 1950, the share of city dwellers in the total population was 19%-20%, and by 1990 it had grown to 38%-40%. By 2000, this figure will reach 45% or even more. In 2000
in 65 developing countries over 2/3 of the total population will be urban, and in the 15 most industrialized countries the level of urbanization will exceed 80%.
Urbanization processes occur differently in developed countries, where industrial development was accompanied by the growth of cities, while modern post-industrial trends have manifested themselves in a slowdown and even some outflow of the population from cities to the suburban area, where the environmental situation and living conditions are more favorable.
This process is called suburbanization. The most urbanized countries, where the urban population accounts for more than 4/5 of the inhabitants, include Great Britain, Germany, Japan, Russia, USA, France, Turkey, and Israel.
Cities, concentrating population, production, management, cultural and scientific achievements, become cells of world economic relations.
Their functions are varied. There are cities that have industrial, transport, trade, distribution and non-economic (administrative, scientific, cultural, etc.) functions. The most common cities are those that combine industrial, trade, transport and administrative functions. There are also highly specialized centers: industrial (Detroit), transport (Suez), political and administrative (Bonn, Canberra), scientific and university (Cambridge, Heidelberg), resort (Nice, Brighton), religious (Mecca, Lourdes), as well as military base (Gibraltar)1.
The growth of modern cities, especially large ones, occurs mainly due to the expansion of non-productive functions, since the majority of jobs are created in these sectors of activity, and migration flows from rural areas determine the composition of the urban population with a characteristic predominance of people of working age.
Local natives, for example in London, Paris or Calcutta, make up less than half the city's population.
Most large cities have a rather variegated ethnic and religious structure, which leads to settlement within the largest city itself (for example, in New York there are Chinatowns, the Brighton area, inhabited by immigrants from the former Soviet Union during the second half of the 20th century, the Harlem area , where predominantly black Americans live, etc.
etc.) and sometimes creates additional sociocultural problems associated with interethnic communication and religious tolerance.
In developing countries, urbanization occurs according to the “center-periphery” type. Less developed areas and their cities act as internal colonies of leading areas and their centers (a kind of “internal colonialism”).
This view of urbanization in developing countries is associated with the concept of “economic dualism”, which is based on the existence of “traditional” and “modern” sectors.
1. The concept of urbanization
In this regard, 3 situations are considered: a) the city pumps various resources for development from surrounding areas; b) the city is “indifferent” to neighboring areas; c) the city imposes on them one or another development structure1.
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1 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, Tasks A22 in geography 1. Which of the statements contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) More than half of the world's population lives in flat areas and about a third at a distance of no more than 50 km from the sea coast. 2) If at the beginning of the twentieth century. there were 10 cities in the world with a population of more than 1 million people, then by 2000 their number increased to) In 1999, the world population was 6 billion people, at the beginning of 2006 it was already 6.5 billion people. 4) If in 1900, of the 15 largest countries in the world by population, seven were in Europe, then at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. Among them, only two European countries remained. Urbanization is the process of growth of cities and the percentage of urban population relative to rural. 2. Which of the following statements contains information about population migrations? 1) In Russia at the beginning of the 21st century. More people die every year than are born. 2) In 2007, the number of those arriving for permanent residence in Russia exceeded the number of those leaving by 240 thousand. 3) The economic crisis in Russia has caused a slight increase in the number of people without work. 4) In the twentieth century. The number of large cities in Russia has increased, and large urban agglomerations have emerged. In demography, we understand migration as the movement of people within a country (internal migration) or across borders (external migration).
2 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 3. Which of the statements contains information about population migrations? 1) Currently, the urban lifestyle is dominant, and in developed countries it has spread to rural areas. 2) The life expectancy of women is on average 5-8 years longer than that of men, so women predominate at older ages. 3) The population is growing rapidly in those countries where its natural growth is highest. 4) At the end of the 20th century. The number of foreign workers arriving in Western Europe has decreased significantly. Migration refers to the movement of population. Migrations can be internal (within the country) and external (from one country to another). In the twentieth century, the so-called “labor” migration arose, associated with the influx of labor to developed countries from developing countries. 4. Which statement contains information about the manifestation of population migration? 1) In many European countries, the death rate per thousand inhabitants exceeds the birth rate, as a result of which the population is declining. 2) As a result civil war in Liberia, 500 thousand people were forced to leave their places of residence and another 800 thousand people fled to neighboring countries. 3) Currently, developing countries account for more than 4/5 of the total annual increase in urban population in the world. 4) The highest life expectancy rates in Russia are observed in Moscow and the republics of the North Caucasus. Migration refers to the movement of population. Migrations can be internal (within the country) and external (from one country to another). Migration is caused by both economic and other reasons. Economic migrations cause an influx of population from rural areas to cities, the development of new territories, and labor migration to developed countries from developing ones. Forced migration (refugees) occurs in places and countries of military conflicts.
3 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 5. Which statement contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) Since the end of the 20th century. The population of the Asian part of Russia was declining mainly due to population outflow. 2) B last years Seasonal movements of townspeople to the countryside became widespread. 3) In the USA, the number of illegal immigrants from Latin America, Asia and Europe exceeds the number of legal ones. 4) Currently, developing countries account for more than 4/5 of the total annual increase in urban population in the world. 6. Which statement contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In some European countries, the death rate per thousand inhabitants exceeds the birth rate, as a result of which the population is declining. 2) Most of the Russian-speaking population (ethnic Russians) of Kazakhstan in the late 90s of the XX century. left this country. 3) In 1995, 45% of the world's population lived in cities; in 2010, half of the world's population lived in cities. 4) In recent years, the number of labor migrants in Germany has added to the flow of political refugees. Answer: 3.
4 Geography assignments A22, practice, 7. Which of the following sentences talks about urbanization? 1) Due to immigrants from other countries, the US population increases annually by more than 1 million people. 2) The share of urban residents in the total population of China is constantly increasing and is now close to 50%. 3) Most countries in the world have a multinational population. India is considered the most multinational country 4) The population increases annually by more than 80 million people. 8. Which statement contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) China ranks first in the world in coal production and second in the world in its proven reserves. 2) By reserves natural gas In the world, two regions especially stand out: foreign Asia and the CIS. 3) In the countries of North America and Western Europe, the rate of economic growth at the end of the 20th century. were below the world average. 4) In the last decade, the tendency towards the formation of regional economic groupings of countries has intensified. International economic integration is the process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems with the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of coordinated interstate economics and policies. Integration processes primarily cover countries that are territorially part of one region. The economic unification of countries means the formation of regional economic blocs and the regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities.
5 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 9. Which of the statements contains information about the process of population reproduction? 1) Population is one of the important factors in the development of any country and all humanity. 2) The socio-economic living conditions of people have a great impact on fertility, mortality, and natural increase. 3) On average in the world to economically active population can be attributed to about 50% of the total population. 4) In 1990, there were about 960 million illiterates in the world, since then the total number of illiterates has decreased by 100 million. Population reproduction refers to the ratio of birth rates and deaths per thousand inhabitants. The difference between the birth rate and death rate is called natural increase, if the birth rate is higher than the death rate, and natural decline, if the death rate is higher than the birth rate. 10. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) The population of Russia increased in 2012 by 292.4 thousand people. 2) In 2012, 2,554 people received forced migrant or refugee status from the territorial bodies of the Federal Migration Service of Russia. 3) In 2011 in Russia, the highest birth rates were observed in the Republics of Ingushetia, Tyva and the Chechen Republic. 4) The ratio of city dwellers and rural residents in Russia was 74% and 26%, respectively, in 2010.
6 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 11. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) The population of Russia increased in 2012 by 292.4 thousand people. 2) Every year more qualified personnel leave Russia than enter it. 3) In 2011 in Russia, the lowest birth rate was observed in the Leningrad and Tula regions and in the Republic of Mordovia. 4) The ratio of city dwellers and rural residents in Russia was 74% and 26%, respectively, in 2010. 12. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) In several regions of Central Russia, the population is increasing due to its influx. 2) More than half of the urban population is concentrated in large urban agglomerations. 3) Most Russian cities are located in the main settlement zone. 4) The largest rural settlements are characteristic of the south of the European part of the country. Correct answer: More than half of the urban population is concentrated in large urban agglomerations.
7 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 13. Which of the following sentences contains information about population migrations? 1) In 2006, the world population reached 6.5 billion people, and now exceeds 7.1 billion. 2) According to the UN, in 2010, the number of refugees forced to leave their countries exceeded 40 million people. 3) More than half of the world's population lives in urban areas. 4) The annual growth rate of the world population is approximately 1.2% per year. In demography, we understand migration as the movement of people within a country (internal migration) or across borders (external migration). The main migration flows are associated with: - the development of new territories, - flows from villages to cities, - forced flows (related to conflicts - refugees). Correct answer: According to the UN, in 2010 the number of refugees forced to leave their countries exceeded 40 million people. 14. Which of the following sentences provides information about the phenomenon of urbanization? 1) In the period from 2000 to 2010, an average of 2.6 million people moved to developed countries from developing countries annually. 2) In mid-2012, more than half the world's population lived in urban areas. 3) Having become a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Russia has committed itself to eliminating or reducing duties on a number of goods it imports. 4) Up to 20% of the grain produced in the world, mainly wheat and corn, enters the world market. region, the world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities, the spread of the urban way of life.
8 Geography assignments A22, practice, 15. Which of the following sentences contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In the 21st century, there remains a large gap in fertility rates between developed and developing countries of the world. 2) The growing share of older people in the total population in many countries of the world is causing serious economic problems. 3) In the period from 2000 to 2010, an average of 2.6 million people moved to developed countries from developing countries annually. 4) In the coming decades, the share of the urban population in EU countries, according to UN forecasts, will continue to increase. region, the world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities, the spread of the urban way of life. Answer: In the coming decades, the share of the urban population in EU countries, according to UN forecasts, will continue to increase. 16. Which of the following sentences contains information about population migrations? 1) The population density of Russia is approximately 8.3 people per 1 sq. km. 2) In all regions of the Far Eastern Federal District, due to the outflow of the population, the population is decreasing. 3) In Russia, the lowest birth rate is observed in the Leningrad, Tambov and Tula regions. 4) According to the latest census, the share of urban residents in the total population of Russia has changed slightly in recent years. Migration refers to the movement of population. In this case: outflow in the regions of the Far East.
9 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 17. Which of the following sentences contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) The largest share in the structure of Russian imports falls on machinery, equipment and vehicles. 2) Russia’s role in global foreign trade is gradually growing, but so far it is small: 1.8% in world exports and 1.4% in world imports. 3) Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus agreed to abolish customs control on their common borders from July 1, 2011. 4) Due to the economic crisis, the rate of economic growth in the countries of North America and Western Europe has slowed down significantly. International economic integration is the process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems with the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of coordinated interstate economics and policies. Integration processes primarily cover countries that are territorially part of one region. The economic unification of countries means the formation of regional economic blocs and the regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities. Answer: 3.
10 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 18. Which of the following sentences contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) Almost half of the volume of world foreign trade is accounted for by highly developed countries. 2) Due to the economic crisis, the rate of economic growth in the countries of North America and Western Europe has slowed down significantly. 3) Russia is the largest supplier of natural gas to Europe. 4) OPEC member countries agreed to limit oil production volumes to maintain high oil prices. International economic integration is the process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems with the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of coordinated interstate economics and policies. Integration processes primarily cover countries that are territorially part of one region. The economic unification of countries means the formation of regional economic blocs and the regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities. 19. Which statement contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In 2006, the world population reached 6.5 billion people, in 2011 it exceeded 7 billion. 2) Every year, millions of people around the world move from the countries of Asia and Africa to the developed countries of Europe and America. 3) The annual growth rate of the world's population is approximately 1.2% per year. 4) According to the latest census, the share of urban residents in the total population of Russia has changed slightly in recent years.
11 Geography assignments A22, practice, 20. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization? 1) In 2010, the migration growth of the population in Russia decreased 2) In 2010, 3.5 billion people lived in urban areas in the world, and 3.4 in rural areas. 3) Within the main settlement zone of Russia, the average density 4) The annual growth rate of the world population is approximately 1.2% per year.
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Urbanization is a historical process of increasing the role of the city in the development of society, which covers changes in the location of production and, above all, in the settlement of the population, its socio-professional structure, lifestyle, culture, etc. - a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process occurring on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In a narrower, demographic and statistical understanding, urbanization is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the share of the urban population in a country, region, or world (urbanization of the population).
The first cities appeared in the 3rd-1st millennium BC. in Mesopotamia, China, as well as in some areas and adjacent to. In the Greco-Roman world, cities such as Athens, Rome, and Carthage played a huge role. With the development of industrial society, the objective need for concentration and integration of various forms and types of material and spiritual activity was the reason for the intensification of the urbanization process and the increasing concentration of population in cities. On modern stage urbanization in economically developed countries there is a predominance of large-city forms of settlements.
The development of the urbanization process is closely related to the characteristics of the formation of the urban population and the growth of cities: the urban population itself; inclusion in the city limits or subordination of suburban areas (including cities, towns and villages) to administrative subordination; transforming rural settlements into urban ones. The actual growth of cities also occurs due to the formation of more or less wide suburban areas and urbanized areas. The living conditions of the population in these areas are becoming more and more similar to the living conditions in large cities - the centers of gravity of these zones.
Comparative analysis of the demographic aspects of the urbanization process in various countries the world is usually based on data on the growth of urbanization of the population - the share of the urban, or urbanized, population. However, in the reports on different countries there is no information given for one date (the amplitude of fluctuations is up to 10 years), the methods of counting the urban population and determining the boundaries of cities are not the same. In countries around the world, there are three different types by which settlements are classified as urban:
- when settlements are divided according to a selected criterion (for example, by type of local government, by the number of residents, by the proportion of the population employed in);
- when the administrative center of a rural area is classified as a city, and the rest of it is classified as a village;
- when population clusters of a certain size are classified as cities, regardless of their administrative affiliation.
Since the criteria for identifying urban settlements vary significantly in individual countries, in order to obtain comparable data, the population of all settlements that have reached a certain population level is often included in the urban population. The values of 2, 5, 10 and 20 thousand inhabitants are proposed as a world statistical qualification for the population of a city (almost unrelated to its definition in essence). Thus, the population of areas with at least 2 thousand inhabitants is often considered urbanized. But such a qualification, while suitable for certain countries, is still too low for the world standard. However, the actual scale of urbanization is so complex that it is preferable to use several criteria as stages. When using national criteria for identifying urban settlements, the dynamics of urbanization of the population is as follows. In 1800, the share of the urban population in the entire world population was about 3%, in 1860 - 6.4, in 1900 - 19.6, by 1990 it increased to 43% (14 times).
The accelerated growth of the urban and non-agricultural population compared to the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic modern urbanization. In three parts of the world - America, Europe - urban residents predominate, while at the same time, the population of Africa and, due to its large numbers, creates a predominance of rural areas over cities on average in the world. The countries of Asia and Africa have the largest reserves for urban population growth, and it is here that the fastest growth has recently occurred.
The highest percentage of the urban population is economically . In 1990, the urban population was (in%): in - 74.3; c - 78.3; - 75; - 60; - 77.5; - 77.4; - 90; China - 26.2; - 25.7. When the share of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (as it approaches 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by the concentration of population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (100 thousand people), the new forms of settlement associated with it and the spread of the urban lifestyle that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization of the population. The share of large cities in the total world population increased over more than 100 years (from 1860 to 1980) from 1.7 to 20%. No less remarkable is the development of the largest “millionaire” cities. If in 1800 there was only one city with a population of more than 1 million, then in 1990 there were over 300 such cities.
The modern type of urbanization in economically developed countries is no longer so much a rapid growth rate of the share of the urban population as a particularly intensive development of the processes of suburbanization and the formation on this basis of new spatial forms of urban settlement - megacities. Under these conditions, processes of territorial deconcentration of the population clearly manifested themselves. This refers not only to the movement of the population from large cities to their suburban areas - a process that widely unfolded back in the 50s. XX century, but also the predominant growth of cities in peripheral areas compared to highly urbanized ones. In the 70s In the United States, population growth rates were below the national average for the first time. Data from France confirm a general population shift from urban agglomerations to small and medium-sized cities as a result of the change in direction. In , there was a population decline in the largest cities, and flows of migrants from city centers were directed mainly to their suburban areas. In many large urban agglomerations, the population has stopped increasing or even began to decrease (often due to a decrease in the population of the city centers).
In the world, as already noted, the “demographic explosion” was accompanied by an “urban explosion”. With relatively low urbanized populations, many of these countries have relatively high rates of urbanization. The disproportionate growth of the capitals of a number of states in Asia and Africa is associated with a special type of urbanization, which is distinguished by the mass attraction of peasants to large cities. The influx of rural population into cities, as a rule, greatly outpaces the growth in labor demand. In developing countries, multimillion-dollar urban agglomerations are being formed (for example, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Kolkata, etc.). On the one hand, the process of urbanization contributes to the progress of these countries, increases the role of cities, on the other hand, it aggravates the socio-economic problems generated by economic backwardness and associated with excessive “demographic” in large cities.
The influence of urbanization on demographic processes manifests itself, to a large extent, depending on the differentiation of the urban environment, primarily on differences in cities in size and economic profile ( functional type). As the process of urbanization develops, the urban population decreases compared to the rural population, and the birth rate subsequently falls in rural areas. Some developing countries (eg Egypt) have higher urban fertility rates due to a range of socio-economic, demographic and religious factors, particularly the fact that cities have a more balanced sex ratio. In almost all countries, the birth rate of urban residents who have recently moved from rural areas is higher than that of those living in cities for a long time (if the adaptation of rural residents to cities is not associated with great difficulties).
As urbanization progresses, the role of migration in urban population growth is gradually decreasing. The intensity of territorial mobility of the population as a whole is growing, especially the intensity of pendulum movements. The main role in the formation of the urban population of the Russian Federation for many years was played by migration from rural areas to cities and the transformation of villages into urban settlements. However, over time, the importance of natural growth in the formation of urban populations increases. In conditions when the rate of natural growth declines, the growth rate of the urban population also slows down. In the early 90s. XX century Population growth in many of Russia's largest cities has stalled.
The profound influence of modern urbanization on many aspects of social life leads to the emergence of new theories trying to explain the role of urbanization in the development of society. This is, first of all, a socio-evolutionist theory of the “urban revolution”, according to which, in the course of urbanization, its contradictions are gradually eliminated and significant antagonisms between city and countryside are removed. The urban revolution should ultimately lead to a “post-urban society.” According to M. Weber, a theorist of urbanization, it leads to the creation of a “post-urban society” - “a society outside the cities” - by including the majority of the population in the information production industry and the development of general spatial mobility.
