B 74 Psychoanalytic approach to counseling
The main provisions of psychoanalysis in the works of 3. Freud and his followers.
Features of the construction of the consultative process: the goals of counseling and its procedures. Psychoanalytic techniques: dream analysis, transference analysis, free association. The work of a psychologist with the mechanisms of psychological defense: transfer, regression, sublimation, repression, denial, projection.
The attitude of the psychologist to the client and its impact on the outcome of counseling.
Modern psychoanalysis of its similarities and differences with the classical.
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Direction |
source-problems |
Key points |
Purpose p/t | ||
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Psychodynamicon the- |
consideration, |
1) the main reason is in |
Awareness |
1) confrontation | |
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governing body |
personality in her |
problems ^- by- |
unconscious |
2) clarification | |
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(psychoanalysis (Freud 3.), |
dynamic |
pressure and transformation |
body |
3) interpretation | |
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individual psychology |
configuration |
instinctive impulses; |
4) study | ||
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Adler, analytical |
as a result. |
2) the development of the problem of training | |||
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psychology Jung K., |
Source pro-. |
caught in a fight between | |||
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volitional psychotherapy O. |
problems - internal |
internal impulses; | |||
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Ranke, etc. |
tripersonal |
3) insight - necessary and | |||
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conflicts |
sufficient condition for the solution. | ||||
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problem. | |||||
The main procedures in this area: confrontation; clarification; interpretation; elaboration. Kon frontation - recognition by the client of specific mental phenomena to be investigated. clarification - placing the detected phenomena in a "sharp focus" to separate important points from minor ones. Interpretation - determination of the main meaning and/or cause of the event. study - repetition, careful exploration of interpretations and resistances until the material presented is integrated in the client's understanding.
Specific Working Methods depend on the current within a given direction. For Freud, the main method was cathartic; for Jung, the method of active imagination; for Horney - a method of joint analysis of the life path; for Sullivan, the psychiatric interview method.
Briefly about psychoanalysis
1) in the narrow sense of the word - psychotherapeutic method developed by Z. Freud in the late 90s. XIX century for the treatment of psychoneuroses. Psychoanalysis as a method of therapy consists in identifying, then bringing to consciousness and experiencing unconscious traumatic ideas, impressions, mental complexes. 2 ) IN broad sense words psychoanalysis refers to the various schools of dynamic psychotherapy. Moreover, we can talk not only about the theoretical platforms of these schools, but also about the institutionalized movement that is carried out on their basis. Psychoanalysis as a movement originates from a circle of supporters of Z. Freud, who united around him in 1902 and founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908.
In the theory plan classic psychoanalysis reformed in the 30-50s. A. Freud, H. Hartmann, D. Rapaport and others. Unlike Freud, who paid the main attention to the unconscious mechanisms of "IT", in modern classical psychoanalysis importance is attached to the preconscious mechanisms of the "I", aimed at adapting to the social environment.
Other areas (schools) of psychoanalysis, much less institutionalized and influential, were founded by students who separated from Freud - A. Adler, O. Rank, and also K.-G. Jung, who became close to him and to the Vienna Society only for a short time.
The concepts of Sigmund Freud and his followers concerning the problems of human behavior, culture and the development of society belong to the so-called sociobiology, which declared itself almost completely ignoring the social factors of the functioning and development of society. First of all, the role of social connections and relations in the behavior and activities of people is ignored. Each individual is considered on its own; the driving forces of his behavior are seen in his biological needs and instincts.
Freud attaches particular importance to the psychosexual development of a person, the influence of his instinctive sexual-biological energy (libido) on the "life of his feelings" and behavior. Sexual self-knowledge of the child means, according to Freud, "the first step towards his independent orientation in the world." In the future, the behavior of a child, and then a young man and an adult, is largely determined by his sexual energy. Moreover, sexual-biological energy is declared to be the basis for the development of human culture.
For a long time, philosophy was dominated by the principle of anthropological rationalism; man, his motives for behavior and being itself were considered only as a manifestation of conscious life. This view found its vivid embodiment in the famous Cartesian thesis "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). In this regard, a person acted as a "reasonable person." But, starting from the New Age, in philosophical anthropology everything greater place concerns the problem of the unconscious. Leibniz, Kant, Kierkegaard,
Z. Freud presented the unconscious as a powerful force that opposes consciousness. According to his concept, the human psyche consists of three layers.
The lowest and most powerful layer - "It" (Id) is outside of consciousness. In terms of volume, it is comparable to the underwater part of an iceberg. It contains various biological drives and passions, primarily of a sexual nature, and ideas repressed from consciousness. Then follows a relatively small layer of consciousness - this is the "I" (Ego) of a person. The upper layer of the human spirit - "Super-I" (Super Ego) - is the ideals and norms of society, the sphere of duty and moral censorship. According to Freud, the personality, the human "I" is forced to constantly be tormented and torn between Scylla and Charybdis - the unconscious condemned "It" and the moral and cultural censorship of the "Super-I". Thus, it turns out that one's own "I" - the consciousness of a person is not "the master in one's own house." It is the sphere of "It", entirely subordinated to the principle of pleasure and pleasure, that, according to Freud, has a decisive influence on the thoughts, feelings and actions of a person.
Man is first of all a being controlled and driven by sexual aspirations and sexual energy (libido).
The drama of human existence is enhanced by Freud's fact that among the unconscious drives there is also an innate tendency to destruction and aggression, which finds its ultimate expression in the "death instinct" opposed to the "life instinct". The inner world of man turned out to be, therefore, also the arena of the struggle between these two instincts. In the end, Eros and Thanatos are considered by him as the two most powerful forces that determine human behavior.
Freudian man turned out to be woven from a whole series of contradictions between biological drives and conscious social norms, the conscious and the unconscious, the life instinct and the death instinct. But in the end, the biological unconscious principle turns out to be decisive for him. Man, according to Freud, is primarily an erotic being, controlled by unconscious instincts.
The founder of psychoanalysis was the Austrian doctor - psychopathologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The main ideas of psychoanalysis are set forth in his works: "Beyond the pleasure principle" (1920), "Mass psychology and analysis of the human "I"" (1921), "I" and "It" (1923). ) and others. Before Freud, classical psychology studied the phenomena of consciousness as they manifested themselves in a healthy person. Freud, as a psychopathologist, exploring the nature and causes of neurosis, came across that area of the human psyche that had not been studied before, but which was of great importance for human life - the unconscious.
The discovery of the unconscious, the study of its structure, influence on individual and social life was the main merit of Z. Freud.
The deep layer of the human psyche, according to Freud, operates on the basis of natural instincts, "primary drives", in order to obtain the greatest pleasure. As the basis of primary drives - purely sexual desires. Later, he replaces the concept of "libido", which already covers the entire sphere of human love, including parental love, friendship, and even love for the motherland. He hypothesizes that human activity is conditioned by the presence of both biological and social drives, where the main role is played by the so-called "life instinct" - eros and the "death instinct" - thanatos.
Since, in satisfying his passions, the individual encounters external reality, which opposes it in the form of "It", the "I" stands out in him, striving to curb unconscious drives and direct them into the mainstream of socially approved behavior with the help of "super-I". Freud did not absolutize the power of the unconscious. He believed that a person can master his instincts and passions and consciously control them in real life.
The task of psychoanalysis in his opinion, it consists in transferring the unconscious material of the human psyche into the realm of consciousness and subordinating it to its goals.
Freud believed that psychoanalysis can also be used to explain and regulate social processes. . A person does not exist in isolation from other people, in his mental life there is always an "Other" with whom he comes into contact. The mechanisms of mental interaction between various instances in the personality find their analogue in the cultural processes of society.
People, he emphasized, are constantly in a state of fear and anxiety from the achievements of civilization, since they can be used against a person. The feeling of fear and anxiety is intensified by the fact that the social instruments that regulate relations between people in the family, society and state oppose them as alien and incomprehensible forces. However, in explaining these phenomena, Freud focuses not on the social organization of society, but on the natural tendency of man to aggression and destruction. The contradictions between culture and the inner aspirations of a person lead to neuroses. Since culture is the property of not one person, but the whole mass of people, the problem of collective neurosis arises.
Psychodynamic theory
Historical period in which it was created: 1890-1939
Freud developed his theory on the basis of natural science knowledge, and the rationale for the empirical validity of the theory was derived from clinical observations of clients in the course of therapy.
Definition of personality. Personality is a genetically determined result of the dynamic unconscious interaction of all its components: id, ego, superego, which obeys the laws of nature along with other living organisms.
The structure of personality.
1. Id (it) - primitive, instinctive, innate. nye aspects of personality. It is an intermediary between mental and somatic processes in the body.
Ego (I) - is responsible for making decisions. Tries to satisfy the desires of the id by relating them to the circumstances of the external world.
Superego (superego)- moral and ethical component of personality. Consists of two subsystems - conscience and his-ideal. The superego is formed in the process of socialization. The formation process can be considered completely finished when parental control is replaced by self-control.
Main theses, key concepts and principles.
Levels of consciousness, instincts are the driving force behind human behavior; the basic instincts are the instincts of life - Eros and death - Thanatos.
The most powerful of the life instincts are the sexual instincts.
The source of instincts is the need that caused the current state of the organism.
Personality development goes through five psychosexual stages: oral - 0-18 months, anal - 1.5-3 years, phallic - 3-6 years, latent - 6-12 years, genital - puberty (puberty).
The consequence of inadequate discharge of sexual energy is anxiety.
The source of primary anxiety lies in the inability of the newborn to cope with internal and external excitement.
Types of anxiety: realistic, neurotic, moral.
The main psychodynamic function of anxiety is to help a person avoid consciously identifying themselves with unacceptable instincts and impulses and to encourage their satisfaction in acceptable ways at a convenient time.
The implementation of this function is helped by the defense mechanisms of the ego: repression, projection, substitution, rationalization, reactive formation, regression, sublimation, denial.
Fundamentals of human nature.
All manifestations of human activity are biologically determined, that is, they are subject to certain laws and are determined by instinctive forces, in particular, aggressive and sexual ones. It follows that Freud considered people mechanistically.
Irrationality plays an important role in human behavior because people are subject to uncontrollable instincts, which are mostly outside the sphere of consciousness.
Freud believed that the study of a person is possible only as a whole - human behavior cannot be understood outside the dynamic interaction of all its components: Id, Ego, Superego.
Despite the long time period in which the theory was created, Freud never changed his main direction - constitutionalism: The id - in theory, is the innate constitutional basis of personality structure and development, that is, what a person is is the result of genetically inherited factors .
Freud, more than other researchers, adhered to the idea of immutability, believing that an adult is the result of the experience of early childhood. In other words: the structure of the adult's personality is the psychosexual stage at which the fixation took place.
Freud was inclined to adhere to the opinion of the prevalence of subjectivity, but this is not the key position of his theory.
Since Freud, in explaining the causes of behavior, adhered to the traditional model of studying the inner world of the individual, he can be ranked among the theorists who preach a proactive view of human nature. However, Freud's proactivity is very limited and can be characterized as a moderate bias towards proactivity, since from his position individuals are not completely proactive: they are reactive to the extent that their instincts are directed to external objects, and the latter, in turn, act in as stimuli that provoke a certain type of behavior.
8. Freud took a homeostatic position: in psychodynamic theory, a person is mainly driven by the id to "satisfy the instincts" and never looks for opportunities to disturb this homeostatic balance.
9. Since Freud considered man as a biologically determined organism, insisting that man obeys the laws of nature on an equal basis with other living organisms, we can conclude that Freud was of the opinion that the essence of man is scientifically knowable.
Application:
psychoanalytic therapy- the study of the unconscious in order to realize the hidden motives that control behavior;
anthropology, criminology, art and any other field in which there is a need to explain human behavior.
Basic concepts and ideas of Freudianism
Psychoanalysis (from the Greek psyche - soul and analysis - decision) - part of psychotherapy, a medical research method developed by Z. Freud for the diagnosis and cure of hysteria. Then it was reworked by Freud into a psychological doctrine aimed at studying the hidden connections and foundations of human mental life. This doctrine is based on the assumption that a certain complex of pathological ideas, especially sexual ones, is "forced out" from the sphere of consciousness and acts already from the sphere of the unconscious (which is conceived as the area of domination of sexual aspirations) and under all sorts of masks and vestments penetrates consciousness and threatens spiritual unity. I, included in the world around him. In deed tv and so repressed" complexes"they saw the cause of forgetting, reservations, dreams, false deeds, neuroses (hysterias), and they tried to treat them in such a way that, during a conversation ("analysis"), one could freely call up these complexes from the depths of the unconscious and eliminate them (through conversation or appropriate actions), namely to give them the opportunity to respond. Proponents of psychoanalysis attribute sexual (" libido") a central role, considering the human mental life as a whole as the sphere of domination of unconscious sexual desires for pleasure or displeasure.
Based on the foregoing, we can consider the essence of psychoanalysis at three levels:
1. psychoanalysis - as a method of psychotherapy;
2. psychoanalysis - as a method of studying the psychology of personality;
3. psychoanalysis - as a system of scientific knowledge about the worldview, psychology, philosophy.
Having considered the basic psychological meaning of psychoanalysis, in the future we will refer to it as a worldview system.
As a result of creative evolution, Z. Freud considers the organization of mental life in the form of a model that has various mental instances as its components, denoted by the terms: It (id), I (ego) and super-I (super-ego).
Under It (id) was understood as a more accepting and obvious instance, which covers everything that is innate, genetically primary, subject to the principle of pleasure and knowing nothing about reality or society. It is inherently irrational and immoral. Its requirements must be satisfied by the instance of I (ego).
Ego - follows the principle of reality, developing a number of mechanisms that allow you to adapt to the environment, to cope with its requirements.
The ego is a mediator between stimuli coming both from this Environment and from the depths of the organism, With on the one hand, and response motor reactions on the other. The functions of the ego include self-preservation of the body, imprinting the experience of external influences in memory, avoiding threatening influences, control over the requirements of instincts (coming from the id).
Particular importance was attached to the super-I (super-ego), which serves as a source of moral and religious feelings, a controlling and punishing agent. If the id is genetically predetermined, and the Self is the product of individual experience, then the superego is the product of influences coming from other people. It arises in early childhood (associated, according to Frame, with the Oedipus complex) and remains virtually unchanged in subsequent years. The superego is formed due to the mechanism of identification of the child with the father, which serves as a model for him. If I (ego) makes a decision or performs an action to please It (id), but in opposition to the super-I (super-ego), then It experiences punishment in the form of ephors of conscience, feelings of guilt. Since the super-ego draws energy from the id, so the super-ego often acts cruelly, even sadistically. From the stresses experienced under the pressure of various forces, I (ego) is saved with the help of special "protective mechanisms" repression, rationalization, regression, sublimation, etc. Repression means the involuntary elimination of feelings, thoughts and desires for action from consciousness. Moving into the area of the unconscious, they continue to motivate behavior, put pressure on it, and are experienced as a feeling of anxiety. Regression - slipping away from a more primitive level of behavior or thinking. Sublimation is one of the mechanisms by which forbidden sexual energy, moving to non-sexual objects, is discharged into an activity acceptable to the individual and society. A kind of sublimation is creativity.
Freud's teachings became famous primarily for penetrating into the recesses of the unconscious, or, as the author himself sometimes said, " hell"psyche. However, if we confine ourselves to this assessment, then we can lose sight of another important aspect: Freud's discovery of complex, conflicting relationships between consciousness and unconscious mental processes, seething beyond the surface of consciousness, along which the subject's gaze glides during self-observation. Man himself, Freud believed , does not have in front of him a transparent, clear picture of the complex structure of his own inner world with all its currents, storms, explosions. And here psychoanalysis with its method is called to help " free associations"Following the biological style of thinking, Freud singled out two instincts that drive behavior - the instinct of self-preservation and the sexual instinct, which ensures the preservation of not the individual, but the whole species. This second instinct was elevated by Freud to the category of psychological dogma (a reference to Jung) and named - libido. The unconscious was interpreted as a sphere saturated with the energy of libido, a blind instinct that knows nothing but the principle of pleasure that a person experiences when this energy is discharged. The repressed, repressed sexual desire was deciphered by Freud by the associations of his patients free from mind control. Freud called this interpretation psychoanalysis. In examining his own dreams, Freud came to the conclusion that " scenario"dreams, with its seeming absurdity, is nothing but a code of hidden desires, which is satisfied in the images - symbols of this form of nightlife.
The idea that our daily behavior is influenced by unconscious motives was discussed by Freud in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901). Various erroneous actions, forgetting names, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue are usually considered to be accidental and attributed to the weakness of memory. According to Freud, hidden motives break through in them, because there is nothing accidental in a person’s mental reactions. Everything is causal. In another work, "Wit and its Relation to the Unconscious" (1905), Freud interprets jokes or puns as a release of tension created by the restrictions that various social norms impose on the individual's consciousness.
The scheme of the psychosocial development of the personality from infancy to the stage at which a natural attraction to a person of the opposite sex arises is considered by Freud in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905). One of the leading versions of Freud is the Oedipus complex, as the age-old formula of the boy's relationship to his parents: the boy is attracted to his mother, perceiving his father as a rival who causes both hatred and fear.
During the First World War, Freud makes adjustments to his scheme of instincts. Along with the sexual in the human psyche, there is an instinct of striving for death (Thanatos as the antipode of Eros), according to Freud, this instinct also includes the instinct of self-preservation. The name Thanatos meant not only a special attraction to death, but also to the destruction of others, the desire for aggression, which was elevated to the rank of a well-known biological impulse inherent in the very nature of man.
Features of the construction of the consultative process: goals, consultation and its procedures. According to Freud's point of view (which arose on the basis of the study of hysteria), the function of a neurotic symptom is to protect the patient's personality from an unconscious thought tendency that is unacceptable to it and, at the same time, to satisfy this tendency to some extent. It followed from this that when the analyst examines the unconscious tendency, reveals it and informs the patient about it (that is, when he makes the unconscious conscious), the raison d "etre of the symptom disappears and, consequently, the symptom itself. This raises two difficulties:
- first of all, it is found that a part of the patient's psyche interferes with this process and resists the analyst, when the latter tries to uncover an unconscious tendency. It is easy to guess that this is the same part of the patient's psyche that previously rejected the unconscious tendency and thus contributed to the appearance of this symptom.
- even if this obstacle can be overcome, and the analyst can infer the nature of this unconscious tendency, draw the patient's attention to it and provide him with exhaustive information about it, then in this case, too, it is most often not possible to cope with the symptom. The realization of these difficulties was of great theoretical and practical importance. Theoretically, it has become clear that the patient is ambiguously aware of the unconscious tendency: he can get an intellectual idea of it from the analyst without being 'really' aware of it.
To explain this phenomenon, Freud resorted to figurative allegory. He presented the psyche in the form of a map. The original unconscious tendency was in one area of this map, and the new information about it, communicated to the patient by the analyst, was in another. Only if both these impressions could be "put together" (regardless of what was meant by this) did the unconscious tendency "really" become conscious. This was prevented by a force within the patient, a kind of barrier, apparently the same "resistance" which opposed the analyst's attempts to explore the unconscious tendency and contributed to the emergence of the symptom. Overcoming this resistance was an important prerequisite for the patient's "real" awareness of the unconscious tendency. At this point, there was also a practical result : our main task as analysts is not so much to investigate this unconscious tendency, but to eliminate the resistance of the patient.
psychoanalysis techniques.
Free association method
Indication: the client has an unrecognized problem.
Target: awareness of the problem.
Algorithm:
the client freely expresses his thoughts about his experiences;
analysis of the sequence and content of statements;
block analysis;
awareness of an unconscious problem.
Dream analysis (from Freud's position)
Indication: clarification of experiences hidden from consciousness.
Target: interpretation of repressed experiences in a form acceptable to consciousness.
Algorithm:
the client's telling a dream that is significant for him from the past ("remembered") or the present;
initiation by the client's specialist to freely associate about the content of the dream he narrated;
disclosure of the latent content of the dream and its interpretation by a specialist;
the client's awareness of the events that provoked the dream and the disclosure of their true meaning.
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1. The concept of psychologicalcounseling.Goals andtasks, principlescounseling,
Psychological counseling- Applied branch of modern psychology. In system psychological science, its task is to develop the theoretical foundations And applied programs for providing psychological help mentally and somatically healthy people V situations when they face their own problems.
The specificity of psychological counseling is the emphasis on dialogue, circulation information, on the exchange of information between a psychologist-consultant and those people for whom psychological counseling is used. Tasks: Listening to the client. Relief of the emotional state of the client. Acceptance by the client of responsibility for what is happening to him. Assistance from a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation. Target psychological counseling is defined as providing psychological help, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. The purpose of psychological counseling according to R. Kociunas:
to promote a change in the behavior of the client or a change in attitude to the situation, to help client enjoy life And live productively; develop skills to overcome life's difficulties; ensure effective decision-making;
develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships;
facilitate the realization and increase of the potential of the individual.
Principles psychological counseling: benevolent and invaluable attitude towards the client; focus on the norms and values of the client; careful attitude to advice; distinction between personal and professional relationships; the involvement of the client and the psychologist in the counseling process.
3. Basic tricksreferenceconversations. Personality and professional ethics psychologist-consultant.
Conventionally, the conversation between a consultant and a client can be divided into four stages: Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. Questioning the client, formulating and testing advisory hypotheses.
corrective impact. End of conversation. The duration of the reception, during which the conversation actually takes place, varies significantly depending on the goals and objectives of counseling, the organizational forms within which it is carried out, as well as the theoretical orientation of the consultant. Start of a conversation. The first thing the consultant needs to do during the appointment is to meet and seat the client. The success of the conversation largely depends on how, from the very first minutes, the psychologist will be able to prove himself to be a benevolent and interested interlocutor. A very important point in the beginning of the conversation is getting to know the client by name. In principle, the client may refuse to identify himself, but forget or not invite him to introduce himself - this means in many ways dooming the consultation to failure.
Client inquiry. We will conditionally divide this stage of the conversation into two sub-stages, at the first of which the psychologist still does not know anything about the client and therefore is most interested in the latter telling as fully as possible about himself and his situation. The second stage begins when the consultant already has enough information to formulate psycho-correctional hypotheses and begin testing them. The first phase of questioning the client. Since the main goal of the consultant in this phase is to "talk" the client, its implementation will be best helped by questions and remarks that maximally stimulate his story. “Tell me about your relationship...”, “What is your family like?” Naturally, while the client is talking, the psychologist is not just listening, but working. It is conditionally possible to single out several areas of work at this stage of counseling. The consultant 1) maintains contact with the client; 2) stimulates him to continue the story; 3) contributes to the purposeful development of the conversation; 4) makes sense of what the client is saying. In order to fully participate in the dialogue with the client, the consultant should remember the names, titles, dates, various details mentioned by the client. The questioning process takes 25-30 minutes, but 15-20 minutes after the start of the conversation, the consultant should already understand the client's problems and situation well enough to be ready to move on to the second phase of the questioning - formulating and testing advisory hypotheses. Hypotheses in psychological counseling. Each hypothesis is the consultant's attempt to understand the client's advice.
Hypotheses in psychological counseling are, in fact, options for more constructive positions in a situation, probable ways of reorienting the client in his attitude to his problems.
The counselor's hypotheses are based on what the client says about himself and his problems. The second phase of questioning the client. In the second phase, the nature of the questions fundamentally changes. The wording becomes more subtle, aimed at clarifying the consultant's ideas. “How many times a week does he come back after twelve?”, “When exactly did you first have the feeling that she was unwell?” The main approach to work at the 2nd stage of the questioning is the analysis of specific situations from the client's life. Working with specific situations is one of the most reliable ways for a consultant to test his hypotheses. After two or three such specific situations have been discussed, the consultant can say with certainty which of the hypotheses turned out to be the most appropriate. Provision of psychocorrectional influence. The impact is based on the analysis of a specific situation. The tasks of psycho-correctional influence can be considered realized only when a peculiar chain of events is built not only in the mind of the consultant, but also in the mind of the client. The goal of the consultant is to help the client to formulate as possible more options behaviors, and then, carefully analyzing them, choose what is most appropriate for this person in his situation. End of conversation. 1. Summing up the conversation (a brief summary of everything that happened during the reception; 2. Discussion of issues related to further relations
client with a consultant or other necessary specialists; 3. Consultant's farewell to the client.
2. Stages of the consultative process. Stage 1. Acquaintance with the client and the beginning of the conversation. Duration this stage 5-10 minutes with an average duration of one consultative conversation 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. During this stage, the psychologist-consultant performs the following actions: You can stand up to meet the client or meet her at the door of the office, which will be perceived by the client as a demonstration of goodwill And interest. It is advisable to encourage the client with words like “Come in, please”, “Sit down comfortably”.
After the first minutes of contact with the client, it is recommended to give him a pause of 45 - 60 seconds so that the client can collect his thoughts and look around. After a pause, it is desirable to begin the actual acquaintance. As Kociunas R.-A. B. (1999), the client must make a decision about his entry V the counseling process is quite conscious, therefore, before the start of the counseling process, the counseling psychologist
is obliged to provide the client with maximum information about the consulting process, namely: about the main goals of consulting, about His qualifications, fees for consulting, O the approximate duration of counseling, the appropriateness of counseling in this situation, O risk
temporary deterioration of the client's condition V consultation process, O privacy boundaries. G) It is important to coordinate with the client in advance the possibility of audio and video recording. g) It is important not to allow the client to use the consultant for his own purposes, far from consulting, h) After addressing all of the above higher questions, you can proceed to questioning the client, which will mark the beginning of the second stage of psychological counseling. Stage 2. Client inquiry, formation And verification of consultative hypotheses The duration of this stage is 25 - 35 minutes with an average duration of a consultative conversation of 45 minutes - 1 hour 10 minutes. This stage can be conditionally divided into two sub-stages: Formation of advisory hypotheses.
Testing advisory hypotheses. The activity of a psychologist-coisulypant at the first sub-line "Formation To advisory hypotheses":
A) Empathic Listening. Usually, when talking about empathy in psychology, they mean the ability to sensitively perceive the inner world another man with all his semantic And emotional nuances. This corresponds to an active response consultant for That. what the client says, frequent utterance of words like “Of course”, “Uh-huh”, “Yes, yes.”
4. The specifics of remote counseling.
The goal is to prevent the further development of acute crisis states, to help resolve a traumatic situation.
Principles: Respect for the anonymity of the applicant - it strengthens
the patient's sense of security, increases confidence when discussing personal problems; Establishing a “compassionate partnership” relationship; Compliance with the availability of a psychotherapist; awareness of the availability of help relieves feelings of loneliness and helplessness; Compliance with the sequence of stages of therapy. two stages: on the 1st, assistance is provided in mastering the situation. On the 2nd - correction of suicidogenic attitudes. The first conversation is crucial in preventing a further development of the crisis. In the helpline - this conversation lasts from 1.5 to 2 hours, it requires maximum effort from the employee. stage: establishing contact - the main task is to convince of emotional acceptance and sympathy - emotional tension decreases. Emotional acceptance stops the experience of loneliness expressed in suicidal reactions.
stage: intellectual mastery of the situation. sympathetically
listening to the patient, the therapist reduces the emotional
tension, asking appropriate questions the therapist forms
in the mind of the subscriber an objective and consistent picture
psychotraumatic situation in its development - the method of "structuring
situations." Helpline employee emphasizes that the subscriber
have time to think about the situation. Talking about your life
way, the patient reports his successes, difficulties. Therapist tactfully
emphasizes these successes, forming the interlocutor's idea of him
as a person capable of realizing a productive life
ways and overcoming difficulties - reception success therapy and
achievements." Repetition of the content of statements by this technique
the subscriber is informed that he is being listened to carefully and correctly
understand. Stage III: planning the actions necessary to overcome the critical situation. The main techniques of stage III:
Interpretation - the helpline employee makes hypotheses about possible ways to resolve the situation. Planning - an incentive to verbalize plans for future activities.
Holding a pause - The purpose of a pause is to give the client an opportunity to take the initiative. Active psychological support - increases the confidence of the applicant in his ability to overcome
difficult situation, highlighting past achievements. Techniques: logical argumentation, persuasion, rational suggestion.
5. Humanistically oriented counseling.
In person-centered or client-centered theory
emphasizes the importance of the self-concept of people, depending on
the ways in which they understand and define themselves. The desire for actualization, inherent in the body and making it possible for its self-preservation and self-strengthening, is the only motivating stimulus for people. The self-concept develops very early in people. Many of the self-images that form the self-concept are likely based on the organism's own evaluative process. However, other self-conceptions reflect the values of others, seen as concepts based on one's own organismic evaluative process. Thus, a conflict arises between the desire for actualization and the self-concept, which is a subsystem of the desire for actualization. This conflict prevents the correct perception of both internal and external experience. Pre-perception is the mechanism by which the organism senses where the experience is inconsistent with the self-concept. Depending on the degree of threat that the experience brings with it, the organism can defend its self-concept by rejecting the experience or distorting its perception. People are psychologically well to the extent that their self-concepts allow them to perceive essential sensory and visceral experiences. Rogers and Maslow's goals in counseling and in life. Six key characteristics of self-image of fully functioning or self-actualizing people are identified: openness to experience, rationality, personal responsibility, self-esteem, the ability to establish and maintain good personal relationships, and leading an ethical lifestyle. In the practice of person-centered counseling, the emphasis is on the quality of interpersonal relationships. The central starting point is that if consultants create a certain atmosphere in building relationships with clients, then the personality of these clients is constructively changed. No one is given preliminary estimate. The person-centered counselor provides all clients with relationship congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. Creating such an atmosphere contributes to the fact that clients have increased congruence in relationships, increased self-esteem and empathy. Thus, clients are in the process of becoming a person and regulating their own lives.
7.Behaviorally oriented counseling.
Behavioral theory can also be seen as
comprehensive theory, and as an attempt to describe on the basis of
experiments laws or principles by which
human behavior is studied and supported. Pavlov conducted large-scale studies, during which he studied the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres of dogs. Pavlov discovered the conditioned reflex, which is known as classical or respondent conditioning. Watson considered behavioral psychology, otherwise called "behaviorism", as an objective experimental branch of natural science, which deals mainly with human behavior. Watson distinguished between acquired and non-acquired responses. Most human reactions are acquired. On the basis of conditioning, systems of habits are formed: a) visceral or emotional; b) manual; c) laryngeal or verbal. Skinner believed that behavior is shaped and sustained by its consequences. The theory of operant conditioning emphasizes that behavior affects the environment, generating consequences. Reinforcers are events that increase the likelihood of a response. The components of reinforcement that describe the interaction between the organism and the environment are: a) the circumstance in which the reaction takes place; b) the reaction itself; c) reinforcing consequences. Behavioral counseling begins with a behavioral assessment, which is carried out to determine the goals and methods of treatment. Evaluation involves the collection of data, which may be obtained from interviews or other sources such as the client's self-observation. Counselors can help clients by increasing the number of reinforcers available and diversifying incentives. This approach is very effective in treating people who are depressed. a) deep muscle relaxation training; b) creation of thematic hierarchies of stimuli that cause anxiety; c) presenting the points of the hierarchy to the imagination of deeply relaxed clients. Counselors can teach clients how to manage stimuli associated with adaptive and inappropriate responses and how to use positive and negative self-reinforcement. Goals: eliminating deficits in behavioral repertoires; strengthening adaptive behavior; weakening or eliminating inappropriate behavior; elimination of debilitating anxiety reactions, development of the ability to relax; development of the ability to assert oneself; development of effective social skills; achieving adequate sexual
functioning; developing the ability to self-regulate.
6. Gestalt-oriented counseling.
The founders of Gestalt therapy are Frederick S. Perls, Ralph F. Heffrline, Paul Goodman. Therapy consists in analyzing the internal structure of actual experience, regardless of the inherent degree of contact, in studying not so much what is experienced, remembered, done, etc., but how it is remembered, how it is said, etc.. All the directions described works contribute to the integration of the client's personality, help to overcome neurotic defense mechanisms and find the "true Self". The main theoretical provisions of Gestalt therapy: Each organism strives to achieve a state of full functioning, which means completeness
internal organs. A person in the process of perceiving the external world does not perceive individual elements
reality as isolated and not interconnected, but organizes them into a whole or into gestalts that have for him
values. The functioning of the individual is carried out through a process of self-regulation, through which the organism satisfies its needs (or incomplete gestalt) and maintains a balance in constantly changing
conditions. An individual can exist only within the boundaries of the environment, which is an integral field that includes him and
environment, and its behavior is a function of the entire field.
A characteristic element of Gestalt therapy is attention to the processes and phenomena occurring in the body as a whole, and not in individual elements of its structure. The main process integrating the functioning of the body is consciousness. Gestalt recognizes and restores balance in consciousness, thereby helping a person to find his completeness (comfort). Within the framework of the concept of Gestalt therapy, the following variants of protective mechanisms are described: PROJECTION. Attributing own undesirable qualities and motives for the client to other people. INTROJECTION. The client acts in accordance with the principles, attitudes, rules, etc. learned from significant persons (especially in childhood).
DEFLECTION. Avoiding real action to overcome obstacles or solve problems by
endless and hopeless talk about the problem.
CONFLUENCE. Blurring the boundaries of one's Self and merging with the Self of another person without a clear delineation of one from the other. The client in such cases, describing his experiences, uses the pronoun "we". RETROFLEXION. Instead of focusing energy on overcoming external difficulties and obstacles, a person turns it on himself, therefore, he often becomes inappropriately aggressive or acquires psychosomatic
disorder. Principles gestalt therapy:
The principle of "now", or the idea of focusing on the present moment, is the most important principle in Gestalt -
therapy. The principle of "I and You". This principle expresses the desire for open and direct contact between people.
Those. not just transfer the conversation to the therapist, but directly talk to the person about the problem. The principle of subjectivization of the utterance. This principle is related to the semantic aspects of the responsibility and involvement of the patient. For example: “Something is pressing me”, “something is preventing me from saying this” Continuity (continuum) of awareness - intentional concentration on the spontaneous flow of the content of experiences,
being aware of what and how is happening at the moment.
8. The subject, goals and objectives of cognitive-oriented counseling.
The cognitive approach is based on theories describing personality in terms of the organization of cognitive structures. It is with them that the psychologist works in a correctional plan, and in some cases we are talking not only about violations of the cognitive sphere itself, but also about the difficulties that determine communication problems, internal conflicts, etc. Cognitive psycho-correction is focused on the present. This approach is directive, active and focused on the client's problem, used both in individual and group form, as well as for the correction of family and marital relations. The following features can be distinguished: The focus is not on the client's past, but on his present - thoughts about himself and the world. It is believed that knowledge of the causes of disorders does not always lead to their correction: for example, if a person comes to the doctor with a broken bone, then the task of the doctor is to heal the fracture, and not to study the causes that led to it. Correction is based on learning new ways of thinking. Widespread use of the homework system aimed at transferring the acquired new skills to the environment of real interaction.
3. The main task of correction is changes in self-perception
and the surrounding reality, while recognizing that
knowledge about oneself and the world influences behavior, and behavior and its
the consequences affect the perceptions of oneself and the world.
The cognitive approach can be divided into two directions:
1. Cognitive-analytical.
2. Cognitive-behavioral.
Cognitive-analytical direction.
The main task is to create a model of a psychological problem that would be understandable to the client and with which he could work independently. The task of the psychologist D. Kelly considered to be the clarification of unconscious categories of thinking (which are the source of categories of thinking) and teaching the client new ways of thinking. To do this, he created techniques for the direct correction of inadequate ways of thinking. The main concepts used in the cognitive-analytical direction: "traps", "dilemmas", "obstacles".
The goal of cognitive counseling is to “encourage the reality-testing system anew” (Beck. 1990). Cognitive counselors “teach patients to correct cognitive processing defects themselves and reinforce assumptions that enable them to cope” (Beck, Weishaar, 1989). In addition, cognitive counselors seek to develop in clients behavioral skills that are relevant to their problems. When working with cognitions, counselors teach clients to: control negative automatic thoughts; awareness of the connection between cognitions, emotions and behavior; research and verification of arguments for and against, distorted automatic thoughts; replacing prejudice-based cognitions with more rational interpretations; identifying and changing beliefs that contribute to a predisposition to
distortion of experience
9. A. Beck's cognitive theory. cognitive distortions. Strategies for cognitiveoriented counseling.
A. Beck expresses a fundamentally new approach to the correction of emotional disorders, different from the traditional schools of psychoanalysis and behavioral therapy. A cognitive approach to emotional disorders changes a person's view of himself and his problems. The client is taught to see himself as an individual who is prone to generate erroneous ideas, but who is also able to reject or correct erroneous ideas. Only by identifying or correcting the errors of thinking can the client create a life for himself with more high level self-realization. The main idea of A. Beck's cognitive psycho-correction is that the decisive factor for the survival of the organism is the processing of information. As a result, programs of behavior are born. Man survives by receiving information from environment, synthesizing it and planning actions based on this synthesis, i.e. developing their own program of behavior. each person in cognitive functioning has its own weak point - “cognitive vulnerability”. It is she who disposes a person to psychological stress. Cognitive Distortions- These are systematic errors in judgments under the influence of emotions. These include: 1.Personalization- the tendency to interpret the event in terms of personal meanings. The client overestimates both the frequency and extent of the negative feelings he causes in other people. 2. Dichotomous thinking. A person perceives the world only in contrasting colors, rejecting halftones, a neutral emotional position. H. Selective abstraction (extraction). at a noisy party, a young man becomes jealous of his girlfriend, who bowed her head to another person in order to better hear him. 4. Unsubstantiated inferences- unsubstantiated or even contradictory inferences. For example, a working mother at the end of a hard day's work concludes: "I am a bad mother." 5. Overgeneralization 6. Exaggeration (catastrophization)- exaggeration of the consequences of any events Cognitive Oriented Counseling Strategy1. Troubleshooting- identification of problems based on the same causes and their grouping. 2. Awareness and verbalization of non-adaptive cognitions, distorting the perception of reality. 3. estrangement- the process of objective consideration of thoughts, in which the client considers his maladaptive mentalities as psychological phenomena isolated from reality. 5. Change of attitude to the rules of self-regulation. b. Checking the truth of the rules, replacing them with new ones, more flexible. correction goals. The main goal is to correct inadequate cognitions, realize the rules of inadequate information processing and replace them with correct ones. The tasks of a psychologist. To teach the client to be aware of the connections between cognitive schemas, affects and behavior. Learn to replace dysfunctional thoughts with more realistic interpretations. Identify and change beliefs that predispose to experience distortion. position of the psychologist. Since A. Beck believes that the psychologist and the client are co-workers in the study of facts. Which reinforce or refute the client's cognitive schemes, then this is a two-way process and it is a partnership. Therefore, a partnership should develop between the client and the psychologist. Interpretations or assumptions of the client are considered by the psychologist as hypotheses that need to be tested and confirmed.
11. The main stages of cognitive-oriented counseling. Cognitive and Behavioral Techniques Used in Cognitive-Oriented Counseling.
1. Acquaintance. 2 Identification of problematic interfering behavior, (using empathic listening.) 3. Identification of forms of distortion in behavior and in reaction to the situation, (distortions: personalization, dichotomous thinking - thoughts in extremes, selective abstraction, arbitrary inferences, over-communicativeness,
exaggeration). 4. Development of a new behavior model (through new forms of behavior, homework, etc.) 5. Checking the new selected behavior, working on errors, working out point 3 again.
1-3 COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES, S-BEHAVIORAL TECHNIQUES.
1.
Identification automatic thoughts. Void filling is applied - this method helps the client with disorders of excessive shame, anxiety, anger or sadness in interpersonal situations. Fills the void (B) between "A and C": A - an exciting event, C - a moderate, inadequate reaction, B - a void in the patient's mind, which
serves as a bridge between A and C. The void is filled through elements of the patient's belief system. 2. Correction automatic thoughts includes decatastrophizing, reattribution, reformulation,
decentralization. Decatastrophization - refers to the reduction of catastrophization (the client's tendency to exaggerate everything to
catastrophes). This technique - "what if" - is intended for the study of actual, actual events and
consequences that, in the mind of the client, cause him psychological damage and cause a feeling of anxiety.
Technique helps to prepare for the consequences associated with fear. The technique itself: the client describes one of his super fears and the psychologist equates, together with the client, his fear on a 100-point scale, for example, with the loss of a loved one, etc. Reattribution- verification of the correctness of automatic thoughts and beliefs, alternative causes of events are considered. Reattribution is especially useful in cases where the client perceives himself as the cause
events in the absence of evidence. The reattribution technique involves a reality check and an examination of all the factors that influenced the occurrence of the situation. Reformation- the technique is designed to mobilize a person who believes that the problem is not under their control. Decentralization- with various psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, paranoid states) - the main distortion of thinking stems from the client's tendency to personify events that are not related to him. Identification and correction dysfunctional beliefs are very difficult to work with and isolate. Work with them is carried out through a cognitive experiment and the study of beliefs. Homework- provides an opportunity to apply and consolidate cognitive principles between consultations. IN
Cognitive counseling, like any other DZ, is given without fail, its implementation is checked, new forms of behavior and attitudes to the situation are honed through DZ. Behavior rehearsal and role play - used to train skills that will later be applied in behavior. Distraction techniques - to reduce strong emotions and negative thinking. This includes physical activity, social contacts, work, play.
Activity planning is the implementation of the daily routine, as well as the assessment of the performance of a particular activity.
10. Maintheoreticalaspects of rational-emotive therapy by A. Ellis.
A. Ellis believes that every person is born with a certain potential, and this potential has two sides: rational and irrational; constructive and destructive, etc. According to A. Ellis, psychological problems appear when a person tries to follow simple preferences (desires for love, approval, support) and mistakenly believes that these simple preferences are the absolute measure of his success in life. In addition, a person is a being extremely subject to various influences at all levels - from biological to social. Therefore, A. Ellis is not inclined to reduce all the changeable complexity of human nature to one thing. RET distinguishes three leading psychological aspects of human functioning: thoughts (cognitions), feelings and behavior. A. Ellis identified two types of cognition: descriptive and evaluative. Descriptive cognitions contain information about reality, about what a person has perceived in the world, this is “pure” information about reality. Evaluative cognitions reflect a person's attitude to this reality. Descriptive cognitions are necessarily connected with evaluative connections of varying degrees of rigidity. Important in RET is the concept of "trap", i.e. all those cognitive formations that create unreasonable neurotic anxiety. A.Ellis proposed his own personality structure, which he named after the first letters of the Latin alphabet "ABC-theory": A - activating event; B - client's opinion about the event; C - emotional or behavioral consequences of the event; D - subsequent reaction to the event as a result of mental processing; E - the final value conclusion (constructive or destructive). This conceptual scheme has found wide application in practical correctional psychology, since it allows the client himself to conduct effective self-observation and self-analysis in the form of diary entries.
12. Sociometric techniques of the psychologist's work with the family.
sociometric techniques
Sociometric techniques are methods for observing, measuring and changing social interaction. The relationship of roles and functions in a particular social system is the main object of study here.
Based on the sociometric approach, social and clinical psychologists have invented many new techniques.
1. Family sociogram
- method of describing preferences and
role-playing choices.
2. Hemogram - method of describing family history.
3. Ecomap -
method of describing the place of a given family in
extended family system and social
community great attention is paid to those internal
and external resources that are available to the family.
4. Family space -
description method
relationships of space, place and emotions in a given
family system.
5. Family sculpture
-
location method
individual in the intra-family system of relationships, in
current situation, or
presented perfectly.
6. Games -
metaphors for playing role-playing behavior in
family on the basis of some kind of joint activity.
7. Role playing card game
-
role determination method
behavior expected of family members and
perceived by other family members as adequate.
Sociometric techniques provide the family therapist with many options.
1. They take the psychotherapeutic process away from intellectual and emotional discussion towards real interaction. They place the present, the past and the foreseeable
the future into the operating system "here and now".
They contain important elements of personal
projection and identification. They vividly represent and dramatize the role play.
behavior. They are very unexpected for customers, not
fit the way they imagine
work at a psychotherapeutic session
2. They are interesting
They are a form
metacommunications. They focus on the social system and the process of social interaction.
13. Structural model of psychological counseling of the family (S. Minukhin,
B. Montalvo, B. Gurney).
In this model, the family is interpreted as a continuous experiment, in which they balance on the verge of stability and change. The family will make mistakes, conflicts will arise because of mistakes, they will be resolved and thus the family will develop. From these rather obvious provisions, the basic concepts of the structural model are derived: the structure of the family, the subsystems of the family, the boundaries of the structure. The structure of the family, according to S. Minukhin (1974), “forms an invisible network of requirements and functions that forms the ways of interaction in the family.” This is a constant, repetitive, predictable behavior that makes it possible to judge whether the family is functioning. And in order to function, it creates its own structure. Consequently, the structure of the family includes sets of conscious and unconscious rules that determine the interaction in the family. For this mechanism to work, a maintenance system is needed. It consists of two parts. The first is genetic, which is present in all families. This is a hierarchical system based on the authority of parents, which is always and everywhere higher than the authority of children. And the second - family complementary roles (for example, one of the parents is the most competent, the other is more emotional). Hierarchy and roles are not always clearly understood, often the reasons for their appearance are forgotten, but they are certainly balanced and complement each other. If this is not the case, the family does not function; actually broke up. A successful choice of roles by a couple, and this is the main condition for a successful marriage, according to S. Minukhin, involves coordination and adaptation. In addition to these basic concepts, in the structural model, an important place is given to the change of the family over time. Here, the so-called transition points are distinguished, in which the structure of the family changes. These points are as follows: marriage, the birth of children, the beginning of schooling, the youth of children, the departure of children from home. It is claimed that countries Western culture these transitional points in the normal development of the family are symptoms of expected crises. S. Minukhin points out that it is easiest for a psychologist to influence a family during crises, especially deep ones.
15. Communication model of psychological counseling of the family (V. Satir, J. Grinder, R. Bandler, P. Vatslavik).
The most important provisions of P. Vatslavik on the rules of communication include the following: no one can not do things, therefore, no one can not communicate; communication has two levels - messages and commands (the command reveals the essence of the relationship); a separate act (communication) is understandable only in the context of behavior; problems arise in a certain context due to broken feedback. If the feedback is not broken, then the meaning of behavior is recognized identically and the family system can function and maintain its stability. This is a sign of a healthy, or normal, family. Such a family does not break up, having experienced stress. Shifts in it occur when there is a need for it. Communication by family members is clear and logical. Thus, the norm in this model is identified with functioning. A dysfunctional family does the opposite. She tries to avoid changes that would meet changing circumstances. For this reason, refuses information about these circumstances. Therefore, communication between its members does not occur, and if it does, then according to the patterns of double communication, when a verbal message denies a non-verbal one, and the sender of the message is not a psychologist, becomes a family teacher and a demonstrator of various forms of communication. At meetings with the family, he must discuss unconscious secret messages. He also suggests evaluating the effectiveness of assistance not during consultations or immediately after their completion, but several months after the last meeting with a psychologist. Another model of communication assistance to the family is offered by V. Satir. As V. Satir points out, while working with the family, she realized that a new family situation is created depending on the four most important phenomena: thoughts and feelings with which a person expresses his attitude towards himself, i.e. self-esteem; the ways in which people communicate information to each other, i.e. communications; the rules that people follow in their lives, i.e. family system; ways to maintain relationships with other social systems. Regardless family difficulties, which prompted to turn to a psychologist, the way of influencing the family is the same - it is necessary to evaluate and correct all four mentioned phenomena. Healthy, prosperous families, which V. Satir calls mature families, have the following properties: high self-esteem, direct, clear and honest communication, flexible and humane rules of conduct. In such a family, its members are oriented towards change (growth), social ties are open, full of positive attitudes and hopes. From the point of view of V. Satir, the natural need of every person is to grow. Each person has the necessary resources to achieve this goal. Using these resources, he can increase his potential. The task of the psychologist is to facilitate growth, to ensure that it meets the needs of the family as much as possible. V. Satir points out that in her system, psychological counseling of the family is carried out in five stages. During 1 stage a threat is revealed that prompted him to turn to family counseling. Establishing a diagnosis of the emerging threat and its expansion, linking it with communication in the family is the content of the first stage. On 2 stage it turns out that someone (for example, a psychologist) must get involved in the relationship of family members and change them. However, at this time, the family tries to reject extraneous influence on it, to reject psychological help. 3 stage- the stage of chaos, incomprehensible communications and contradictory behavior. If there is no third stage, if everything is clear to the psychologist and the family, there will be no changes in the family. The stage of chaos obviously shows that the family can no longer live the way it used to. This is the most difficult stage for a psychologist, because. it begins the growth of the family, and its members are not yet active enough. At this stage, it is still inappropriate to make decisions that are significant for further relations, however, emotions are expressed and needs are revealed, the desire for personal growth is enhanced. This allows you to proceed to the tasks of the fourth stage, i.e. to practice. The purpose of the stage is a new practice in the application of communication skills. Since a person gravitates towards old habits, only understanding the new communication situation does not guarantee a shift. Therefore, practical exercises and training are needed to help consolidate new communication. Here the family as a whole supports the psychologist. The fifth stage is the stage of a new family situation. It may be similar to the first one, and on it you can begin to implement a new cycle of psychological counseling for the family. A feature of further cycles is that the stage of chaos is shorter and not so contradictory. A family that has gone through three or more cycles of psychological counseling is usually free of threatening symptoms and approaches the model of a harmonious, balanced, open family. During the meeting with the family, the psychologist demonstrates balanced, harmonious communication and reveals, reveals to family members the inconsistency of their mutual communication.
14. Psychological counseling of the family based on the theory of family systemsM. Bowen (psychodynamic model).
No other psychological theory has been as widespread or as influential as psychoanalysis. The fundamental provisions and concepts (for example, the Oedipus complex) of this theory are closely related to family relationships. The main provisions of M. Boven: a family is a small group of people living in a common house. At the same time, the family is also an emotional system that includes all family members (both the living and the deceased, and those outside the family). This emotional system exists in the present.
16. The concept of an ideal family in the concept of K. Rogers. The role of the family therapist In the competence of K. Roger, each person has a desire to activate himself, to preserve, complicate his internal organization and adapt to the environment.
There is also a strong desire to meet the desires of others (to conform to them). Each person develops a self-esteem - an image, a representation of himself. A person begins to focus more not on his own self-esteem, but on the expectations of others. This deformation of personal development, which takes place in the modern family, inhibits the process of personal development and can lead to neurosis.
One of the main functions of the family is to create conditions for the development of the individual and all its members. The question is relevant - how family members communicate, perceive each other. Rogers identified 3 conditions under which the client begins to focus on his tendency to actualize himself, rather than on the opinions and assessments of others. This is the Rogers triad.
1. The therapist is congruent with the client
to our own experience (congruence - those reactions that we have - we try to follow them). Don't lie to the client.
2. He performs (experiences) the unconditional
positive acceptance towards the client. So that the client does not do or says something bad, the consultant accepts him.
3. Empathically perceive the client, i.e.
the ability to accept it and express to the client his feelings so that he can better understand himself. These 3 conditions can be realized in the following ways:
1. Verbalization - return to the client what he said.
2. The ability to be silent so that the client feels the unconditional
positive acceptance.
3. Actualization of the language of feelings.
The functions of creating conditions for the development of the personality of all family members correspond to the role of a family psychotherapist. Each member of the family should be a psychotherapist to another - this will correspond to their growth. The family will perform: the function of a refuge in a heartless world; providing psychological comfort. Rogers described 2 ways parents function.
1. Well functioning parents are
parents who are characterized by a high level of self-acceptance, which determines the high level of acceptance of their children and their organic evaluation.
2. Poorly functioning parents with low
a level of self-acceptance that prevents them from accepting their children and encourages them to often formulate a condition of value in relation to their children. The task of psychotherapy is to revive the role of the family therapist. There are questionnaires for the analysis of communication in the family. Scales: mutual understanding between spouses; degree of psychotherapy in communication.
17. The work of a psychologist-consultant with marital conflicts.
Let us dwell in more detail on some of the advantages of working with two spouses, as well as on certain difficulties associated with this option for clients to come to the consultation.
1. First of all, a conversation with two, and not with one spouse, is more diagnostic, allows you to immediately see the problems and difficulties that clients complain about.
2. Referring to what is happening "here and now" is more convincing and effective than the analysis of what is happening outside the consultant's office.
3. The presence of both clients allows you to successfully use a number of special techniques and techniques.
4. while working with both partners, it is possible, if necessary, to maintain the working motivation of one of them “at the expense” of the other.
5. Couple counseling is often more effective.
But, in addition to these and some other advantages, working with both spouses has a number of additional difficulties and disadvantages.
1. First of all, it is usually more difficult to conduct a reception in which two clients participate, rather than one, especially in the early stages of the consultation process, since the presence of the second member of the couple affects the course of the conversation in one way or another
2. Work with two spouses, although it is more effective, is often less deep, superficial. In this case, serious personal problems underlying certain marital disagreements are less often addressed.
3. Working with both spouses is more vulnerable in a way. The unwillingness of one of them to move on, the character traits of one of the partners that impede more in-depth work, can seriously interfere with counseling
Organization of work with a married couple. If both spouses came to the reception and both express their readiness to discuss family problems together, it is simply a “sin” for the consultant not to take advantage of this.
There is a fear of clients that the consultant will support only one of them. Psychologist's answer: “I have a big request for you: as soon as you notice that I took the side of one of you to the detriment of the other, immediately point it out to me. It will help me a lot in my work, and I will be sincerely grateful to you.” Such an answer is, as a rule, especially convincing. It happens that one of the spouses “brings” the other to counseling, and, accordingly, the orientation of one of them to psychological assistance is much less, and often it is not at all. In such cases, the "unmotivated" spouse often from the very beginning expresses a desire to talk with the consultant in private, without a partner. The consultant should show some perseverance, trying to convince clients of the possibilities and advantages of joint marital therapy. Work organization With one spouse. But most often it happens that the spouse comes to the consultation alone, not wanting, and most often not being able to bring a partner with him. In such a situation, it is necessary first of all to support him, assuring that work with one member of the couple is by no means meaningless or fruitless. The situation of working with one spouse, and not with two, is “dangerous” due to inequality, since the person who comes to the appointment, in a sense, takes the burden of family problems on himself alone. In expressing such doubts in a counseling situation, the client is generally right, since the main condition for constructive psychological work is the client's acceptance of guilt (or responsibility) for what happens in the family, although it is obvious that both spouses contribute to the problems. Even a single successful conversation with one of the spouses can lead to the fact that the next time both will come to the reception. There is another possibility for the development of the consultation process, which in no case should not be overlooked. This is a situation where the consultant himself becomes the initiator of separate meetings with partners. This usually happens when the work is not moving forward and the obstacle that has arisen - the unwillingness of the spouses to discuss anything, the obvious stubbornness of one of them, reinforced by the reactions of the other - becomes a serious obstacle to the counseling process. constructive negotiation technique. One of the effective techniques for establishing interpersonal communication between spouses is a face-to-face conversation between them, especially when something really important for both is touched upon or discussed. In this case, the counselor may ask them to address each other directly, looking into their partner's eyes and describing their feelings in detail.
19. The work of a psychologist-consultant with parent-youth conflicts.
Problems: . Normal relationships do not develop between parents and children of adolescence. Parents of high school students are not entirely satisfied that their children are friends with peers who, for one reason or another, do not suit their parents. Parents with young children are not happy with how their children choose their future procession. The choice of children does not quite suit the parents. Conflicts arise between a mother who is divorced from her father and a child of senior school age due to the fact that a stranger has appeared in the family (stepfather-stepmother). Normal relationships do not develop between children of different parents who are forced to live together in the same family. Let us consider successively the cases corresponding to these options from the point of view of the practice of psychological counseling. Consider the problem of vocational guidance for a teenager. If, while studying in high school, a boy or girl intends to choose a profession for themselves, which for one reason or another does not quite suit their parents, then in this case it is most reasonable for parents to do the following. First, try to understand why their child made such a decision, and not the one suggested by the parents. Secondly, try to find such weighty arguments in favor of the protected profession that would correspond to the needs and interests of the child. The mistake that many parents often make in dealing with this issue is that they talk to high school students as if the parents are absolutely right in everything, and the children are wrong in everything without exception. This position is incorrect in principle: one person cannot be right in everything, without exception, and the other is always wrong. Parental arguments and facts with which they try to convince their child when choosing a profession should be just as motivated as the arguments of children. Then they will be better able to understand the correctness of their parents.
Before evaluating another person's behavior,
all the more so - to condemn him, you need to try
understand him.
Never and under no circumstances
insult each other.
Wherever possible, go towards each other,
look for a compromise.
If compromise is not possible, then judiciously and
calmly explain your position to another and then
stick to it.
When in a state of irritation, do not try
figure out relationships with each other.
18. The work of a psychologist-consultant withthe problem of educationin family.
Relationships between parents and preschool children.
In the practice of psychological counseling, the following problems are encountered: The child is overly active or, on the contrary, unusually passive, apathetic, indifferent to everything. Both extremes in a child's behavior can, of course, cause justified concern for parents. Normal relationships do not develop between their children and conflicts quite often arise. . Spouses with a child still at an early age cannot agree on how they should educate and educate the child. A child who is already seven years old does not want to go to school. In the psyche and behavior of a preschool child, parents discovered something that worries them. Parents of a child of preschool age are preparing him for school and want to do everything in their power to prepare the child as best as possible for schooling. However, they have problems with this. Parents want to start teaching their child from an early preschool age, but they do not know if they are doing the right thing by loading the child with serious studies from an early age. between parents and children junior school age, the following variants of problems may arise that require psychological counseling. 1. Parents whose child is already in the first grade of school are worried that he is not studying well. 2. The child does not develop normal relationships with other children and teachers. For parents who have teenage children, and at themselvesteenagers Between parents and children who have reached adolescence, conflicts constantly arise on a variety of issues. For some reason, teenage children do not want to study, behave provocatively, perform their household duties in bad faith, do not fulfill promises made to their parents, etc. . It seems to parents that teenage children are hiding something from them. At the same time, parents notice that children often spend time outside the home and avoid communicating with them. A teenager is not interested in anything serious, from the point of view of his parents, and does not want to engage in his development. Consider the practice of conducting psychological counseling using an example:
Conflicts between teenagers and parents in the family are a common phenomenon. Such conflicts are usually associated with the transition of the child to a higher level of psychological development. It is necessary to have the following practical recommendations as possible: 1. Try to stop emotionally reacting negatively to defiant actions and deeds
teenager, his resistance to the reasonable arguments of adults. You should try to objectively understand what is really happening, why a teenager behaves this way and not otherwise.
2. Think about how best to convince a teenager
change your behavior. 3. Make a decision and act solely by the method of persuasion, without resorting to coercion.
4. Persistently continue to get your way by acting like this
until the problem is resolved. 5. Stop reacting negatively to a teenager's refusal to talk about himself and his affairs. Treat with understanding and respect the desire of a teenager to spend a lot of time outside the home in communication with peers. 6. Stop ignoring, dismissing serious discussion of those issues that concern a teenager. Stop scornfully reacting to the judgments of a teenager. 7. Imperceptibly, unobtrusively, but sincerely and
benevolently, on an equal footing, join in the conversations of adolescents, ensuring that they accept adults into their society and confidentially discuss with them issues of concern to them. With patience, parents should use only positive communication experiences. Here they will most likely need systematic consultations with a psychologist.
20. Domestic and foreign concepts of career guidance.
In 1983 - the concept of professional suitability (a set of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a person, as well as the presence of special skills necessary for the successful performance of professional activities. Two components of the structure: - mental characteristics 2 - professional skills. 1991 - Levitov - “a person suitable for a profession should be considered a person who, in terms of his individual qualities, corresponds to this profession.” 1996 - Markova A.N. - the totality of a person’s mental qualities, necessary and sufficient to achieve high labor efficiency (the approach is aimed at the individual qualities of a person). of these features has its own structure and among the most significant components it is necessary to include professional abilities.Based on the classification of abilities Teplova - all abilities can be divided into 2 groups: 1-general abilities (characterized by the quality of human thinking and processes of perception (perception, speed of thinking). 2 - special abilities - the ability to a certain type of activity (musical, artistic, mathematical, organizational skills). Yu.A. Orlov - he proposed (according to Teplov's scheme) to single out professional abilities as a combination of general (directed ability to be a teacher) and special (to be a teacher of physics). 2 component - professional motivation. A person considers this profession to be his vocation, he believes that he should be engaged in this particular type of activity. Professional motivation can be stable, forming the main connections of the profession, and unstable (random). 3 component - knowledge and skills. 4th component - certain character traits (hard work, independence, responsibility - these are the qualities that encourage a person to work). 5th component - satisfaction with work and results of work (work of a teacher, psychologist, doctor, manager). Types of professional suitability.
L.Yu.Gilbukh - 1981 - proposed to divide professional suitability into two types: 1 - absolute professional suitability (it meets the requirements of the profession in all its features). Ex. professions where prof. risk, so there must be full compliance, for example, an airport dispatcher (should be careful). 2 - relative professional suitability - a partial coincidence of the characteristics of a person and the requirements of the profession. Relative should be more than 50%. Assessment of professional suitability can be carried out on the following grounds: self-assessment of oneself as a professional; expert assessment of a specialist, colleagues and managers (professional examinations or professional attestations). First of all, checking professional knowledge, skills, and the quality of labor results. Theories of professional suitability. How should the characteristics of a person relate to the requirements of the profession. They are divided into two groups: Group 1 - typological (division of people into types). Spranger identified the following types of individuality: theoretical person, economic person, aesthetic person,
social man, political man, religious man,
Goland proposed a division into 6 types: realistic, intellectual, social, entrepreneurial, artistic.
Eric Burke identified 3 main life scenarios: adult, parent, child. Parental professions - teach, cook, care. Children's professions - all professions of politics, art, sports, artistic.
Children's professions - all professions related to control (police).
In 1995, Isabelle Meyers and Katharina Briggs proposed a typology based on 4 main characteristics that regulate human life. 1 base - this is how a person focuses his attention and interacts with the outside world (extrovertive and introvertive people are visible on this basis). 2 basis - the ability to make a decision (for this
sensing or intuitive people stand out on the basis). 3 base - collection of information (highlight mental or
emotional type). 4 foundation is how a person interacts with the outside world (he wants to rebuild the world around / procedural or resultant /). Each type has a list of professions that corresponds to it. Introverted - psychologist - self-centered. The second type of theory is presented in the Russian typology (active approach). Gilbukh - proposed the concept of absolute and relative professional suitability and proposed diagnosing the degree of a person's suitability for a profession (for this you need to know the characteristics of a person and highlight the requirements that this profession can present). Klimov's 2nd theory - his idea is based on 4 degrees of suitability. 1 - unsuitability for the profession (inconsistency with the profession) 2 - fitness for the profession (almost complete compliance with the profession) 3 - conformity with the profession and is expressed in the fact that a person has no obvious contraindications and obvious indications 50x50. 4- vocation (when a person fully meets all the requirements of the profession and considers it his vocation).
21. The main directions and stages of career guidance work at school. Main directions:
1. familiarization of students with the features of various professions in the classroom and outside of school hours.
2. demonstration of practical work during excursions to the enterprise.
3. meeting with interesting people(politicians, scientists, school graduates, etc.)
4. acquaintance with the fan of the profession (demand for the profession in the regions)
5. teaching students the initial skill of industrial professions in labor lessons
6. use of media
7. professional games
Stages of career guidance. There are 3 stages associated with periods of age development
1. Primary school age - interest in the profession is peripheral. At this stage, talk about
professions.
2. middle school age. The main task is to form your own I, help the student to learn
themselves, analyze their interest in school subjects.
3. senior school age. It is necessary that the student understands the need for a profession. Value orientations serve as the main selection criterion. The work plan of a psychologist to provide career guidancehelp.1). 7-8 cells At this stage, the professional intentions of students are studied (psychodiagnostics, etc.).
2). 9 cells Individual vocational advice for those who want to enter secondary vocational institutions.
3). 10-11 cells. Octant confidently chose a profession, outlined a plan for obtaining it and began the stage of pre-professional training - this is training in a specialized class, attending courses for applicants, the stage of a professional test (when a student tries to check whether he has the qualities of those professions that he wants to go after school).
23. Vocational education: tasks and methods of work. Decision making model forcareer choice. The purpose of education is to help in professional self-determination The methods of education proposed by Pryazhnikov and Ovchara. Main groups of methods. Conversation (goal - to reveal the idea of the optant about the world of the profession). Discussions are done by the teacher, the head teacher for educational work and the psychologist. The main goal is to activate professional intentions and expand professional ideas of octants. For example, the topic is a person’s work path (easy or forgive, difficult -
hard, whether you need it today or not). 1.Excursion - obtaining information about a group of professions.2. Writing essays and essays by students about professions (for example, “The profession of my parents”). 3. Reading literature on professions. 4. Meeting with professionals (parents of students) find 2-3 solutions in the form and indicate which one he himself would use. For example, 1) Your friend asks for advice on what decision to make. He is offered a job in an insolvent, "dishonest" company. 2) They are invited to work with a long probationary period and without compulsory employment. The goal is to expand ideas about the aspects of human activity and activate the independence of the octant in choosing a profession. model of the future profession. For example, the game "I am in the profession." Octant is invited to write down his most important qualities. For example: purpose, decency; further cards with empty cells are offered, on which the most important names of professions are written. From his capabilities, he must choose what he can implement in this profession. Type 3 - career guidance game or trtenig (Pryazhnikov, Samoukin). A person is invited to analyze and feel the advantages and disadvantages of certain professions, which
are brought into this game. It is proposed to create an ideal version of the company.
The main goal is to expand the understanding of the modern world
professions. And also to understand what features in it are
stable, and he must take them into account when choosing
profession.
22. Group and individual professional consultation: types, methods.
Vocational consultation is one of the areas of career guidance. Vocational counseling aims to assist in choosing a profession. Models can be different. Vocational consultation can be carried out both in group and in individual form.
group involves expanding the ideas of the optant about the world of the profession of their choice and training or games are held. training- exercises that help a teenager understand his inclinations, learn the inclinations of group members, form his own strategy in choosing a profession. Individual- diagnostics are revealed, assistance is provided in making a decision in choosing a profession. Group consultation: Kinds:
1. Information - an introduction to the world of the profession;
2. Diagnostic - using questionnaires (diagnostics of professional
intentions of schoolchildren) diagnosing interests and
inclinations. You can do your own data processing
pupils. The optant questionnaire allows you to identify
professional intentions and the degree of their sustainability.
Differential diagnostic questionnaire, questionnaire
professional readiness - it is advisable to carry out in
group, it is important to properly set up students for this
work (may be negativism, misunderstanding among
schoolchildren). These doubts must be removed.
3. Educational - it is advisable to consider the process model
making a decision on the choice of profession, talk about
classification of the profession according to Klimov.
4. Developing - games, group development trainings
general abilities. Means - conversation, discussion,
trainings, games, questionnaires, interviews. Individual professional consultation. Problems that are addressed to professional consultations. 1. Ignorance of the world of professions - use. DDO, OCG, to identify the class of profess, offer the optant to identify this class of profess
2. Ignorance of oneself - psychological strategy - tests for
intellect, comprehension, cognitive sphere, Eysenck.
3. Inadequate self-esteem is the reason for the wrong choice
profession or a person underestimates the bar of claims or overestimates
+ the problem of lagging behind in personal development.
4. Identification of the profession with the academic discipline.
Establishing rapport between consultant and optant. What brought you to the consultation? What do you want to know about yourself or your profession? It is necessary to obtain a lot of information about the optant, to achieve cooperation - the psychological readiness to choose a profession is the result of the work of the optant. How do you envision your future? Clarify the ideal and the real. - Connecting the future with the present. Klimov's professional counseling method.
1. Identification of professional intentions (where
the student is going to go after school).
2. Identification of interests (name your favorite educational
items).
3. Inclinations, favorite activities in your free time.
4. Abilities (for which subjects
abilities were shown; Do his inclinations match?
career choices).
24. Professional information: structure, sources of information, methodswork. Professional information is a type of assistance that allows you to expand a teenager's understanding of the world of professions and obtain specific information about the chosen profession. The main ways in which a teenager receives information about the world of the profession. 1 source - peers (incomplete source). 2 source - parents (incomplete source).
3rd source - information that he receives at school from a conversation with teachers (+, -). 4 source - mass media (+,-). 5source - professional advice (+ full
source). The psychologist himself should have the following groups of knowledge:
1. The idea of the profession, how the profession differs from
specialties, specializations, qualifications. In what area
this specialty appears.
2. Have an idea about the profession as a system
professionally important qualities, professional tasks and
results of labor., i.e. professionalism. Have
idea of the possibility of professional development and
degree of demand for a particular profession.
3. Have an idea about the classification of professions and its
main structural components.
Author Strumilin S.G. - 1983 - he divides all professions into the following groups: 1 group - automatic T ores (strictly regulated with the same type, small operations during the day (assembler not in a watch factory, work related to the conveyor).
Group 2 - semi-automatic labor (labor operations
monotonous, but there may be a variety in the rhythm and style of activity
/working specialties that work on piecework conditions
wages/). Group 3 - template performing work (labor operations are determined by instructions, they are diverse and their rhythm depends on the person himself / seamstress, cook /). Group 4 - independent work within a specific labor task, freedom to choose methods of work and terms is provided (for example, the task is to do something: a psychologist, teacher, doctor). Group 5 - free, creative work (writers, composers - there are no specific labor tasks and ways to overcome them). And there is also a classification of Klimov's professions.
25. Methods for studying professional inclinations and orientation. 1993 Klimov divides professions according to the content of labor. I type of professions - distinguishes by the difference of object systems. 5 types: 1st type - human wildlife (forester, gardener, florist).
Type 2 - human technician, inanimate technique (programmer,
designer, engineer). Type 3 - a human sign system, the object is natural and artificial languages, conventional signs and symbols, numbers (accountant, statistician, translator). Type 4 - a person is an artistic image. Work with phenomena and factors of artistic reflection of reality (artists,
artists). Type 5 - man - man. The object of labor is the recognition, service, transformation of population groups or specific people. II - into classes on the basis of the goals of the professions (identified 3 classes). 1 - Gnostic professions (to recognize) (teacher-scientist, teacher-educator). 2 - transforming professions (transformation of the original object of labor) (primary school teacher - from a non-reader you need
teach everything, subject teacher). 3 - survey professions are their essence in finding new, reserve sides of the objects of labor (teachers-innovators). III - departments are distinguished on the basis of the main tools and means of labor. Professions are distinguished: manual labor (car washer), machine-manual labor (car driver), professions associated with the use of automatic systems (locksmith), professions associated with the predominance of labor tools (singer, pianist).
This classification allows you to expand the teenager's understanding of the world of professions and the structure of professions. The study of professional inclinations using DDO, Golomshtok's interest map. DDO (differential diagnostic questionnaire) - identification of professional inclinations and professional interests of students. The questionnaire was developed on the basis of Klimov's classification (5 types of division of the profession) on the basis of the subject or object with which a person interacts in the labor process.
The study of inclinations is carried out by analyzing the students' self-assessment of their professional preferences. DDO are used at all levels of the school, as well as in work with adults. Purpose: to obtain information about the interests, inclinations and professional orientation of the individual. Mark your choice with a "+" sign. The questions are selected and grouped so that in each column they refer to different groups of professions that differ in the main object of labor. Maxim, the sums of "+" in certain columns indicate the predominance of the interests and inclinations of the individual to certain groups of professions, i.e. to a specific professional area. Map of interests of Golomshtok- development based on the classifier of professions Klimov (by 5 types) and is intended for the study of professional inclinations. It is used in work with schoolchildren, students of middle classes and with adults. Professional inclination is a stable prof. interest. Contains 174 questions, which are grouped into 29 types of prof. activities. Unlike DDO and OPG, the card allows you to determine the profession or industry. Instructions: To help choose a profession, answer the question on the answer sheet under the same question number. put: if you just like it - one "+", if you really like it - "++", if you don't know - 0, if you don't like it - "-", if you really don't like it, then - "--".
After completion of the work, a quantitative and qualitative assessment is carried out. OPG methodology, D. Holland questionnaire. OPG (professional readiness questionnaire). Purpose: to determine the predisposition of a person to a certain professional field, taking into account desire, attitude and existing skills. Designed by Kabardova. Consists of 50 questions. We answer each question twice (I can, I wish). Made on the basis of the Klimov classifier and on the basis of self-esteem, skills and desires to perform one or another prof. activity. 1st answer - can I do it? 2nd answer - do I want to do it? Your answers are scored in 3 point system: 0 - negative answer; 1 - indefinite; 2 - positive.
Processing: the number of points in each column is calculated - the total number of points. Then the most preferred sphere of the considered professional areas. OPG is used with DDO and CI (map of interests). Holland's checklist (classifier of professional personality types). Allocated 6 prof. types: realistic type - a guide to the present (mechanic,
electrician, photographer); intellectual - analytical, rational (botanist, physicist, scientist); social - social skills: teachers, doctors, schoolchildren; conventional - practical, conservative: accountant,
auditor, accountant. enterprising - leader (journalists, director); artistic - reliance on emotions, fantasy: music,
writer, decorator Instruction: Various professions are presented in pairs. In each pair, you need to find the profession that he prefers. Sum up "+". The largest number of "+" gives the result of belonging to a particular type.
27. Selection: search and selection of personnel. The selection consists in creating the necessary reserve of candidates for all positions and specialties, from which the organization selects the most suitable employees for it. This work should be carried out literally in all specialties - clerical, industrial, technical, administrative. Selection is usually carried out from external and internal sources. External recruitment tools include: publishing advertisements in newspapers and professional magazines, contacting employment agencies and management firms, sending contracted people to special courses at colleges. Some organizations invite local people to apply to Human Resources for possible future vacancies.
Most organizations prefer to conduct recruitment primarily within their organization. Promoting your employees is cheaper. This increases their interest, improves morale and strengthens the attachment of employees to the firm.
Personnel selection.On At this stage, in the management of personnel planning, management selects the most suitable candidates from the pool created during the selection process. In most cases, the person who is best qualified to do the actual work in the position should be chosen, not the candidate who appears to be the most suitable for promotion. An objective decision on the choice, depending on the circumstances, may be based on the education of the candidate, the level of his professional skills, previous work experience, personal qualities. For leadership positions, especially at a higher level, the skills of establishing interregional relations, as well as the compatibility of the candidate with superiors and with his subordinates, are of primary importance. Effective selection of personnel is one of the forms of preliminary quality control of human resources. The three most widely used methods for collecting information required for making a selection decision are tests, interviews, and evaluation centres. Interviews. Interviews are still the most widely used recruitment method. Even non-management employees are rarely hired without at least one interview. The selection of a high-ranking leader may require dozens of interviews that take several months. Research shows that structured interviews with standardized and recorded questions and answers increase the accuracy of this method.
26. The main activities of the personnel management service. The personnel manager acts as a protector of the interests of employees in front of other managers; adviser for the latter on problems of relations with subordinates; staff interaction coordinator. The most important element of personnel services is the personnel departments that manage its movement.
Their main functions are: personnel accounting; forecasting and planning the need for personnel; organization of recruitment, selection, training, retraining, relocation, dismissal of employees; studying and evaluating the personnel of managers, specialists and presenting recommendations to management on filling vacant positions by certain persons; formation of a personnel reserve and work with it according to special programs; participation in the certification of personnel and activities following its results. There are several blocks in the structure of personnel management.
1. block of personnel formation (staffing, study,
preparation, dismissal);
2. block of distribution and redistribution of personnel
(primary placement, dismissal);
3. block for creating conditions for the use of personnel (security
labor, organization of medical and social
services, development of incentive methods);
4. development of standards for personnel (productivity,
time consumption, wages);
5. divisions for creation and improvement
structures and management systems that implement them
design and management of formation processes.
But today in Russia With personnel is dispersed mainly between different services and divisions. The work of personnel services has two directions: tactical and strategic. The first carries out current personnel work: analysis of the state and planning of staffing needs, development of staffing tables, recruitment. Evaluation and selection of personnel; testing; planning of the next personnel transfers and layoffs, current accounting and control, training, retraining and advanced training, formation of a reserve for promotion, promotion of organizational values and education of personnel in their spirit. Today the main activity personnel services is considered to be the formation labor resources: planning the need for them and organizing practical recruitment activities, conflict resolution, social policy. The essence of personnel work is to determine what exactly, by whom, how and with the help of what should be done in practice at the moment in the field of personnel management. The solution of these daily tasks is based on administrative methods. The strategic direction of the work of personnel services is focused on the formation of the personnel policy of the organization - a system of theoretical views, ideas, requirements, practical measures in the field of work with personnel, its main forms and methods.
28.Motivation of personnel activity and technology of its formation. In order to connect a person to the solution of a particular problem, one must be able to find the motivation that would prompt him to action. In the management of the household activity for the first time the problem of motives and incentives was posed by Adam Smith, who believed that people are controlled by selfish motives, the constant desire of people to improve their financial situation. Smith had in mind the motivation of the entrepreneur, the motivation of the workers did not interest him. The American theorist Taylor filled this gap. He believed that the workers are controlled only by the instincts of satisfaction. physiological needs. Everyone works out of necessity, strives to work less. He believed that the coercive power of the administrator is the main engine of production and the main motivation for work. Time wages do not allow the employee to manage his time, while the administrator sets the pace of work, prohibiting unauthorized stops. The surplus of the labor force, underemployment of the population were a powerful stimulus for increasing labor productivity and influenced the motivation of workers. In the 1950s and 1960s, this method exhausted itself. In the 1930s, a humanistic direction in management (Elton Mayo) emerged in the United States, which was enriched with research. Maslow. Maslow proposed a classification of needs.
1. Basic physiological needs - food, water, sleep, housing, sexual satisfaction. basic needs. An important stimulus to satisfaction is money; prospect of economic viability.
2. The need for security - avoidance of injury, illness.
They respond to incentives such as guaranteed work, social.
insurance, pensions.
3. Social needs - constant contact with yourself
similar - sociality - Mayo.
4. The need for respect - status, prestige, self-respect,
self confidence.
5. The need for self-realization - full realization
potential, creativity.
The English scientists Woodcon and Francis built tables where they said that there would be no effect from "the main motivators, if it is not decided with" motivation regulators ". Motivation Regulators: Working environment ( workplace, noise level, cleanliness,
design, canteen), Remuneration (salary, other payments, additional benefits, medical care). 3. Feeling of security (respect, approval of others). Main motivators: Personal development (responsibility, experimentation, new experiences, learning opportunities, careers).
Feeling of belonging (shared decision-making,
consultations, feeling of usefulness at work). "Interest and challenge" (interesting projects, developing experience, age, responsibility).
Factors 1,2,3 can act as demotivators if employees are not satisfied with them, factors 4,5,6 can increase the interest of employees and provide the organization with major achievements.
29.Corporate culture. The main ways and methods of its formation. Organizational culture is the shared principles, behaviors, values, attitudes of people that they adhere to. The content of organizational culture Harris, Moran 10 characteristics: awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization; communication system and language of communication; appearance, clothing and presentation of oneself for work; analyzes what and how people eat; awareness of time, attitude to it and use of it; relationship between people; values and norms; belief in something and relationship or disposition towards something; the process of employee development and learning; work ethic and motivation.
The manifestation of organizational culture occurs through communication. The content of organizational culture influences the way behaviors, conversations, emotions, etc. are developed. Culture depends on the culture of the leader. Forms of maintaining organizational culture. Perhaps by including the management style, redesigning roles in the organization, changing incentive criteria, changing the emphasis of personnel policy, changing symbols and rituals, changing the objects of attention from managers (the rite of reinforcement is the best turner, the rite of unity is the celebration of dates, holidays, going to barbecues etc.)
Approaches to Formation of organizational culture.
30. Types of conflicts in the enterprise, ways to prevent and resolve them. 1 type - conflict between departments or subdivisions of the enterprise - this is a conflict of functional responsibilities
- solved job descriptions. Type 2 - conflict within departments or intra-group - most often arises over issues of power or salary - is resolved by working with an informal leader, and transparency financial reporting(but more often reporting is not
transparent (commercial secret) and becomes the property of all). Type 3 - interpersonal conflict, features - the transition of business communication to a personal level (did not have time to do it - you are a lazy person), solution - the transition from mutual attachments to the main problem. Types of conflict
personalities :
Type 1 - rude - tank - rushing to the breach, does not hear others, rude forms of communication. Type 2 - rude - screamer - solves all issues with the help of a cry (angry, frightened and upset). Type 3 - grenade - it is not known when it will explode (it will explode when a feeling of helplessness). Type 4 - a pessimist - gets the fact that he sees everything in a bad light. Type 5 - overly accommodating - promises a lot, but very often offers his help, but does not. Type 6 - the complainant - constantly informs management about everything. Type 7 - know-it-all - feels superior to others. Type 8 - false altruist - does good and deep down regrets it (the most dangerous type). Prevention of conflicts. Conflict prevention as And its prevention as a whole is served by such measures as: the correct selection and placement of personnel;
continuous improvement of wages in accordance with the changing situation; the rhythm of work, attention to the working conditions and life of workers; improving the methods of managing the organization, taking into account the changing situation; timely provision of resources, their rational and fair distribution;
compliance with the rights and obligations of employees, especially managers, strict control over respect for rights and fulfillment of duties, maintaining high labor discipline;
clear distribution of production tasks, powers and responsibilities; creation of formal and informal authority
leader; formation of favorable interpersonal relationships;
strengthening the collective norms of self-regulation of the behavior of employees, team building; paying special attention to rumors, gossip, petty quarrels, which are usually indicators of unloaded workers and create fertile ground for conflicts; Ensuring uniform workload for all employees. the leading role in dealing with conflicts is played by the immediate supervisor of the unit in which the conflict is brewing or already developing.
1. Features of psychological counseling
2. Depth psychology or psychodynamic theories
3. Methods of psychological counseling when using various theories of personality in the work
3.1. Methods of psychodynamic theory
3.2. Behavioral direction in psychological counseling
3.3. Humanistic direction in psychological counseling
Key concepts: goals and objectives of psychological counseling, professionally important qualities, insight, personal conflicts, personality defense mechanisms, counseling techniques.
1. Features of psychological counseling
The goal of psychological counseling is a culturally productive person who has a sense of perspective, acts consciously, is able to develop various behavioral strategies and is able to analyze the situation from different points of view.
The main task of a counseling psychologist is to create conditions for the formation of non-standard methods of action for a mentally healthy client. The counseling psychologist needs to enter into such an interaction with the client that he can find new ways of acting, new experiences, new thoughts, new goals for later life.
The theory that the psychologist uses sets the organizing principles for counseling, as well as for any other type of psychological help. Approaches to the practice of psychological counseling are:
- depth psychology - psychoanalysis (S. Freud),
- individual psychology (A. Adler),
- analytical psychology (K. Jung),
- transactional analysis (E.Bern), etc.,
- behavioral direction - social learning, training of social competence; self-learning; cognitive therapy; rational-emotional therapy (A. Ellis), etc.,
- humanistic direction - gestalt therapy (R. Perls),
- group therapy (K. Rogers),
- logotherapy (V. Frankl),
- psychodrama (Moreno).
It is important to note that regardless of the theoretical orientation of the psychologist, there are common features in various approaches to counseling (professional-important qualities of PVC)
- individual and cultural empathy,
- psychologist observation,
- assessment of the client's personality and social environment,
- the use of the concepts of life, the meaning of life, a person's place in life, values, individuality
The description of each direction will be a brief annotation, allowing, in our opinion, to highlight the basic concepts used in each direction, and the main methods of influencing the client.
Let us briefly dwell on the characteristics of the possible approaches to the practice of psychological counseling that have developed at the present time.
2. Depth Psychology, or Psychodynamic Theories
Psychoanalytic counseling focuses on understanding the origins of the client's problems. Inside as a moment of awareness is often enough to initiate personal change.
Today, the psychodynamic theory created by Z. Freud exists in many modifications and is represented by the works of A. Adler, E. Erickson, E. Fromm, K. Horney, C. Jung, V. Reich and others. Gestalt therapy by R. Perls, bioenergetics by A. Lowen were born on the basis of Freud's classical theory.
According to the psychodynamic theory, a person's life is determined by his past, i.e. stable personal characteristics (stereotypes) formed in childhood are then reproduced in different versions in adult behavior. The psychologist working with the client singles out these stereotypes, establishes their connection with each other and with the person's childhood experience.
As you know, the concept of the unconscious is the main point of the theory of Z. Freud. The concept of the unconscious allows us to describe the complexity and ambiguity of human life. The main task of psychoanalysis is to identify and study the subconscious sphere that controls a person. The psychologist, working with the client from the position of psychodynamic theory, seeks to ensure that the client is aware of his subconscious processes and learns to influence them. In this case, it is considered that the goal of interaction between the psychologist and the client has been achieved.
Personal conflicts 3. Freud described in terms of "It", "I" and "Super-I". "It" is the realm of the subconscious. "Super-I" is what a person has acquired in the process of socialization, "I" is a conductor between the "Super-I" and "It". A strong “I” that regulates the relationship between the “It” and the “Super-I” is the most important condition for achieving intentionality. In modern modifications of the theory, the task of the psychologist is to find, with the help of the "I" of a person, a certain consistent relationship between the "It" and the "Super-I".
Since the main task of the "I" is to maintain a balance between external (social) forces acting on a person and internal (unconscious), the psychologist is constantly working with the self-defense mechanisms of the individual. In psychodynamic theories, it is believed that most defense mechanisms are used to suppress sexuality.
Recognition of emotional and behavioral stereotypes can be carried out through the study of the protective mechanisms of the individual.
Let us dwell briefly on the characteristics of the main protective mechanisms of the personality, the advantages and disadvantages of which in maintaining the balance between the “It” and the “Super-I” are analyzed by P. Leister.
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Psychological protection |
advantages |
flaws |
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Identification |
Thanks to introjection - the formation of the "Super-I" - the norms are adopted that bring liberation from conflicts |
The controller ("Super-I") becomes an internal tyrant. Man becomes a slave to introjected norms and is therefore not free. Through identification with the aggressor and authority, the principle spreads further: what they do to me, I do to others |
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crowding out |
Unfulfilled desires and unacceptable ideas are forced out of consciousness for the sake of peace, this brings instant liberation |
Repression requires energy to maintain it. The problem is not solved, it remains, and this is a threat to mental health |
|
Projection |
You can not see the beam in your own eye and criticize it in the eye of another. You can fight your own mistakes without doing anything to yourself |
Self-knowledge and maturation of the personality are difficult. An objective perception of the external world is impossible. The projection is hardly distinguishable by the personality, this deprives it of realism. |
|
Formation of symptoms |
Aggression against oneself - self-aggression, which leads to the infringement of one's own life and the search for sympathy |
Symptoms become chronic, it's a slow degradation |
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substitution |
Substitution is a "healthier" defense mechanism than the formation of symptoms, since it is not carried out on own body, but is transferred to the replaced object |
The responder feels liberated, and the substitute object often suffers. The substitution can have socially negative consequences, the responder receives a new frustration - the circle closes, and the boomerang returns to him. |
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Sublimation |
The energy of tension will fully respond in socially useful activities: creativity, sports, etc. |
The causes of tension are missed. The sublimated tension does not disappear, so a more or less conscious state of frustration arises. |
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Formation of reactions |
Masking already existing feelings, reducing tension due to new types of interaction. |
The formation of reactions leads to a lie that draws in the person himself and the people around him. |
|
A person avoids criticism and, thanks to this, frustration |
The position of the observer reduces the productivity of a person, in the future there are problems with self-regulation |
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Rationalization |
Justifications for their actions are being sought, hiding the true motives. It serves to preserve self-respect and self-affirmation against external criticism. |
A businesslike and constructive discussion of the problem is eliminated, a person creates an obstacle for himself in order to look better from the point of view of other people. |
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Stun |
Thanks to alcohol or drugs, conflicts, frustrations, fears, guilt are eliminated, a feeling of strength is achieved. This is salvation from the frightening reality |
Dependence on alcohol and drugs. Change organic structures body, illness |
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Shielding |
Fencing off from mental stress, depressive moods, fears, anxiety occurs in a short time. There is a transient feeling of peace, stability, relaxation, balance and, as a result, a satisfactory temporary release. |
Symptoms disappear without removing the causes. This leads to the accumulation of negative experiences. |
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Interpretation of impotence |
“I can’t do anything - such are the circumstances” - thus the person avoids solving problems |
Psychological problems are not eliminated, but spread further. There is a danger of manipulation. |
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role play |
The role mask brings security. The need for security is stronger than the blocked freedom of expression of individuality |
Inability to go beyond the limits programmed by the role |
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Petrification, dulling of the senses |
A business mask, a picture of complete emotionlessness and mental equanimity. The shell on the feelings does not allow them to manifest themselves outside and get inside. A person is guided by the behavior of the machine |
Interpersonal contacts are impoverished, repressed feelings are a burden on the organs and muscles. Who does not allow himself to be emotional, he becomes sick physically and mentally |
Important mechanisms of self-defense are also
- fixation (delay on one side of development),
- regression (return at the threat of stress for more than early stage development),
- the transfer of unconscious experiences into the physical sphere (for example, into a headache),
- provocative behavior (behave in such a way that a person is forced to reveal feelings that the provocateur himself is incapable of, for example, to express anger or love).
3. Methods of psychological counseling when using various theories of personality in the work
3.1. Methods of psychodynamic theory
During the interview, a psychologist working on the basis of psychodynamic theory uses the following techniques:
- Analysis of the symbols of everyday life, for example, the directed association of the client to a given word
- "Freudian error" - these are errors, typos, slips of the client that tell the client's subconscious feelings. Free association is the best way understand the meaning of these errors.
- Analysis of dreams through the flow of free associations about the content of the dream.
- Resistance analysis as a manifestation of a broader displacement mechanism.
- Analysis of the content of the client transfer. Transference refers to the feelings of the client and in relation to the psychologist. Reverse transference is the content of the psychologist's feelings towards the client. The psychologist is obliged to identify, understand and work out his feelings for the client
- Awareness of one's feelings in relation to a client and the ability to deal with one's feelings is an integral part of the work of a practical psychologist of any direction.
So, free association is the basis of all the techniques used by psychologists who use psychodynamic theory.
Working in line with psychodynamic theories requires intellectual discipline from the psychologist, virtuoso mastery of techniques, which is achieved through long-term systematic training, with the unsystematic use of psychoanalytic methods and techniques for interpreting results, it gives rise to “wild” psychoanalysis, which does not bring relief to the client.
3.2. Behavioral direction in psychological counseling
The initial methodological position of psychologists in this direction is to give the client control over his actions, to cause specific changes in his behavior.
Historically, this direction comes from the works of D. Watson and B. Skinder. This is a very optimistic direction, based on the scientific pragmatism of its adherents. The psychologist, together with the client, tries to intervene in the client's living conditions in order to change them. It is built on the following main components of behavioral psychology.
1. Relationship between psychologist and client. The behavioral psychologist shares his plans with the client, hoping for the client's activity in interacting with himself.
2. Definition of the problem through the operationalization of behavior. The Behavioral Psychologist relies on clear and concise data about the behavior and actions of clients. Analysis requires the psychologist to have a clear knowledge of what the client is doing and how he is behaving.
The goal of operationalizing behavior is to translate vague words into objective, observable actions. The behavioral psychologist asks himself and solves the question “Can I see, feel, touch the concepts that my client uses? »
3. Understanding the context of the problem through functional analysis. Functional analysis involves the study of events preceding the act, the act itself and its consequences, that is, the result. This is how cause-and-effect relationships are clarified in the sequence of events that determine the external behavior of the client.
4. Setting socially important goals for the client. Setting socially important goals for the client necessarily involves the participation of the client. The psychologist selects and develops with the client goals for him, suggesting a specific plan of action for the future
Behavioral analysis is an emphasis on specific actions and actions of a person. The behavioral psychologist focuses on the actions of a person, and not on his thoughts about actions. Having precisely defined the problem, the psychologist is ready to offer the client answers to solutions.
The behavioral psychologist uses many techniques. Among these, the most popular is persistence training. Perseverance training allows most clients to overcome helplessness and inadequacy, which are the most common types of problems clients have.
When training perseverance during an interview, in addition to open and closed questions, the psychologist uses role-playing games, during which, with the help of directives, he sets the direction of the interview.
Questions, role-plays and listing alternatives for making a decision are the arsenal of a behavioral psychologist to help change the client's behavior
Among the procedures for changing behavior, the behavioral psychologist uses, in addition to perseverance training, relaxation training, targeted anxiety (phobia) reduction based on deep relaxation training, building a hierarchy of fears and linking the object of anxiety with the hierarchy of fears against the background of relaxation exercises.
Behavior modeling and rewards for desired behaviors are also behavioral methods of teaching clients new behaviors.
Behavioral psychologists make extensive use of diaries and other records of clients that they keep while working with a psychologist.
In behavioral counseling, psychological strategies are widely used to maintain the desired behavior in the client in everyday life; these are relapse prevention strategies.
Relapses, breakdowns occur in most clients. The task of the psychologist is to build a program at the generalizing stage of the interview that would help to cope with a relapse.
This strategy enables the client to control himself in difficult situations. Relapse prevention strategies are divided into the following categories: anticipating difficult situations, regulating thoughts and feelings, identifying the necessary additional skills, building favorable sequences.
Research shows the effectiveness of relapse prevention programs. The main points of the relapse prevention program are as follows:
1. Choosing the right behavior. Describing it in detail, the client deciding how often he will need this behavior again and how he will understand that a relapse has occurred.
2. Relapse Prevention Strategy: The behavioral strategy is for the client to record a relapse that has occurred and describe what it is. Then analyzes the difference between teaching difficult behavior and using it in difficult situations. Then it is analyzed which of the people known to the client can help him adhere to the desired behavior. Then high-risk situations, people, events, places that provoke a relapse are discussed.
3. The rational thinking strategy offers an analysis of the client's emotional response to a temporary breakdown or relapse, as well as an analysis of what will help him think more effectively in difficult situations or after a breakdown.
4. A practice aimed at supporting the developed skills is discussed with the client. The question of what additional skills he needs to stay within the framework of the developed behavior is discussed.
5. In the strategy of determining the desired conclusions, the psychologist and the client discuss the future benefits of his new behavior, ways to reward them themselves for the action performed.
6. The strategy for predicting the consequences of the first relapse is aimed at describing in detail the first relapse - people, places, times, possible emotional state.
The relapse prevention technique is important for more than just behavioral psychology. The problem of relapse exists in the work of psychologists of all directions, and its solution by behavioral psychologists deserves great attention from all practical psychologists.
3.3. Humanistic direction in psychological counseling
It places at the center of its methodology the client's personality, which is the controlling center in the psychologist's decision-making, which distinguishes this direction from psychodynamic theory, which emphasizes how the past affects the present, and from behavioral theory, which uses the influence of the environment on the personality.
The humanistic or existential-humanistic direction in psychology was developed by K. Rogers, F. Perls, V. Frankl.
Their main methodological position is that the purpose of a person is to live and act, determining his own destiny, the concentration of control and decisions is inside the person himself, and not in his environment.
The main concepts in which this direction of psychology analyzes human life are the concept of human existence, decision making or choice and the corresponding action that alleviates anxiety; the concept of intentionality - an opportunity that states that a person, acting in the world, must be clearly aware of the impact of the world on him.
The task of the client and the psychologist is to understand the world of the client as fully as possible and support him during the making of a responsible decision.
The revolution, which in practical psychology is associated with the works of K. Rogers, is that he began to emphasize the responsibility of the person himself for his actions and decisions. This is based on the belief that each person has an initial desire for maximum social self-actualization.
The psychologist maintains the state of mental health of the client, giving the person the opportunity to come into contact with his inner world. The main concept with which psychologists of this direction work is the attitude of a particular client. Working with the client's world requires the skills of attention and listening, high-quality empathy from the psychologist. The psychologist must be able to work with the contradiction between the real and the ideal image of the "I" of the client, establishing a relationship with the client. In this process, during the interview, the psychologist must seek congruence with the client. For this, the psychologist must have authenticity during the interview, treat the client in a deliberately positive and nonjudgmental manner.
During the interview, the psychologist uses open and closed questions, reflection of feelings, retelling, self-disclosure and other techniques that allow the client to express their worldview.
Using methods of interaction in communication with the client that allow the client to relieve anxiety and tension, the psychologist shows the client how to communicate with people. The client, heard and understood by the psychologist, can change.
Gestalt therapy (F. Perls) occupies a special place in the humanistic direction of psychology, which is distinguished by a variety of techniques and microtechniques that affect the client. Let's list some of the Gestalt therapy techniques: perception of "here and now", directiveness; speech changes; the empty chair method: a conversation with a part of your "I"; the dialogue of the “upper dog” – authoritarian, directive, and the “lower dog” – passive, with a sense of guilt, seeking forgiveness; fixed feeling; dream work.
In addition, thanks to the work of V. Frankl, in humanistic psychology, techniques for changing attitudes are used; paradoxical intentions; switching; method of persuasion (call). The implementation of these techniques requires eloquence, accuracy of verbal formulations, and orientation to the client's attitude from the psychologist.
The humanistic direction of practical psychology constantly focuses on the individual growth of the client.
A practical psychologist working with a client brings his own worldview into the interview with him. If the psychologist tends to impose his point of view on the client, then this can lead to an inability to hear the client, which will destroy the interaction situation. The psychologist, in order to work effectively, must not start with preconceived ideas about how his client's world should work. The practical work of a psychologist is work with a specific individuality of a person. Including with his own individuality - an integral part of his professional position.
The psychologist needs to constantly explore his personal and professional possibilities in order to avoid rigidity or excessive freedom in the development of personal concepts.
The psychologist and the client - two different people - meet during an interview. Regardless of its success, both participants in the interview change as a result of the interaction.
The growing complexity and increasing pace of general economic changes and business conditions give rise to specific problems, in solving which, more and more often, Russian entrepreneurs need the help of consultants. In this situation, the popularity of consulting activities has led to the fact that, until recently, most consultants did not follow any specific strategy and tried to respond to any request from a potential client. However, even now a growing number of consultants understand that they cannot be everything for all clients, that the chance to receive an order increases if a unique service is offered. But here, in addition to the growth of competition among consultants, another question arises - what are the principles for the formation of a consulting service and what are the criteria for its evaluation.
It has been repeatedly pointed out that professional services produce intangible products or products. Consulting product - advice that is given to the client or, if the main focus is on the implementation and change that actually takes place in the organization of the client's work "and is due to the intervention of the consultant. Such a product is difficult to characterize, measure and evaluate. The consultant may have his own opinion and idea about it, while the customer's point of view on the same product and its real value is probably completely different.
Therefore, consultants are reluctant to clearly define their products. Some fear that this will limit them and prevent them from seeking and finding new opportunities in areas they have not covered. Others prefer to consider each opportunity for a new assignment on its merits and decide whether or not to accept it without any product definition in advance. In general, when selling his services on the market, the consultant actually sells only a promise to help the client satisfy his needs, and the client is deprived of the elementary opportunity to evaluate the offered product and is forced only to assume about the consultant's capabilities and build relationships with him on exceptional trust.
Increasingly, however, both clients and consultants want to "increase the tangibility" of the consulting process in order to improve sales, planning, management, and control on the part of both the client and the consultant. There are four different ways to define an advisory item.
Option 1. - functional or subject areas of intervention.
This variant, common in the past and still widely used in the present, defines the consultant's services in the functional or technical areas in which he can help the client. The main thing here is to have a quality education and wide experience in this field. Examples are finance, marketing, production management or general management.
And although such a product definition indicates an area of expertise, it does not have a specific focus if the subject area is broad.
It does not specify what quality is a feature of this consultant, what are his strengths and how it differs from others. It says nothing about the methods of his work, about the results that he wants to get with the intervention.
Option 2 - management and business problems.
This option defines services for typical business and management issues faced by clients. The main thing here is the ability to help in solving problems and the corresponding special qualifications. For example, the rationalization of information flows, the emergence of the possibility of creating a joint venture and negotiations on its creation, agreements on the transfer of technical achievements, etc. It is expected that the consultant will analyze and issue a solution favorable to the client.
Option 3 - special methods and systems.
In this case, the consultant develops and offers clients his own (often unique) approach to solving the problem, which is expressed in the form of special methods, models or management systems. This may be (though not necessarily) a proprietary system that cannot be obtained from anyone else. Of course, the consultant does not just implement a standard system. As a rule, the assignment includes a preliminary study in order to diagnose the problem, adapt the basic, standard, system to the client's conditions and help in its implementation and appropriate training of personnel. This may include further maintenance and improvements to the system, which lays the foundation for a long-term consultant-client relationship. Moreover, the consultant who developed special system, can be considered an authority on applying a standard, known to be effective approach to a certain type of problem that is relatively easy to identify and structure
Option 4 - application of the counseling methodology.
In this case, the consultant tries to make his output more tangible and accurate by providing the client with a description of his methodological approach and identifying problems in client organizations and helping them plan and implement changes.
It emphasizes not the content or end result of the counseling process, but the approach and the fact that the client will be able to master the methodology for diagnosing his problems in the future. The proposed product becomes the method itself.
Other options.
Services other than consulting per se, such as management development, technical training, research, design, data development, etc., are being considered among other options. Accordingly, the above-mentioned consulting options are supplemented by similar services, which is welcomed by clients.
However, none of the options provides a comprehensive solution to the customer's problems. For example, the issue of confidentiality No client feels absolute trust in a consultant, and, accordingly, the consulting process often takes place in a mode of informational limitation, and this cannot but affect the final result.
To this should be added a number of psychological barriers of the customer. Many are generally unwilling to acknowledge the need for consultant intervention, as this can lower the self-esteem of managers. Often, a potential client is concerned that others (subordinates, colleagues, superiors or even competitors) will consider the presence of a consultant as an admission of incompetence. For customers, doubts about the ability of a person from the outside to solve complex problems are typical, which the management of the organization unsuccessfully tried to overcome. Some believe that the consultant will not bother looking for a solution that will fix the situation for a long time, but instead he will try to apply one of his standard packages. In the eyes of some clients, the consultant looks like a too curious subject who collects too much information, which he can then use against them.
Sometimes you hear about how easy it is to hire a consultant, but it is very difficult to get rid of it. It is argued that consultants carry out the received tasks in such a way that new ones inevitably appear. This can lead to permanent dependence on the consulting firm.
And it goes without saying that clients sometimes completely ignore how the amount of a consultant's fee is determined and how it is justified, as well as what benefits it can be compared with. Such clients believe that using a consultant is a luxury that they cannot afford.
How to be in such a situation for the customer, who, on the one hand, is tormented by fears and doubts, and on the other hand, is concerned about the effective solution of his problems?
Taking into account the specifics of modern consulting practice and not always unfounded doubts of customers, the creative team headed by the authors of the article attempted to create a specialized short-term training and consulting program focused on the field of personnel management.
If you try to look at the process of counseling as a whole, then it can be represented as a set of activities carried out by the consultant and aimed at helping the client to perceive, understand and influence the course of events occurring in the client's environment.
Therefore, the creative concept of this program was turned to the idea of building a "self-learning organization" - an organization that creates learning conditions for all its employees and is itself continuously transformed. According to a number of experts, it is precisely such an organization that has the necessary level of adaptability to the dynamic development of external conditions and is able to operate in the paradigm of “preventive” management.
In this context, the consultant acts as a coach, preparing the organization for real “competitions” in the external environment, where the organization will have to make decisions, develop a strategy of action and implement tactical steps on its own. Moreover, we are talking about the development of long-term adaptive skills that allow the organization to independently cope with emerging difficulties and problems in almost all areas of activity for a long time. The program is aimed at senior and middle management and is based on changing traditional ideas about managerial roles. The implication is that managers must reorganize their activities at three levels.
The program implementation technology is based on an andragogical approach to organizational learning, during which an exploratory approach to solving customer problems is implemented, as opposed to a hierarchical one - typical and generally accepted, i.e. approach in which the activity of the consultant is based on the dominance of the highest level in the course of information exchange, evaluation and prescription. The research approach implies the opposite, the customer brings a significant share of his previous experience to the change process; discusses with the consultant the curriculum and the availability of the consultant in the process of organizational changes; determines the result of organizational changes, agreed with the consultant, the relationship with which is built on the basis of cooperation and mutual exchange of ideas.
The duration of the program is 3 months. During this time, the consultant "gets used" to the organization, where he acts as the initiator of changes and is present in the system as an observer.
Of course, such an approach to counseling requires appropriate training of the consultant. Namely. The consultant should monitor the influence of the following factors: agreement on a detailed diagnosis of the problem with the client; the possibility of strengthening the willingness and ability of the client to implement changes; the iterative nature of communication should provide the opportunity to adjust and modify the strategy and goals of change along the way; striving for stability as a desirable consequence of change; the ability and ability to resist pressure from the client, often striving to get premature and hasty decisions. Therefore, the program is supplemented with specially developed methodological applications that help the consultant navigate the process of implementing the program, and trainings for teachers-trainers.
CONCLUSION
From the study of the current topic term paper It should be noted that the need for consulting services does not depend on the form of ownership of the organization or type of business. The demand for consultant services is determined not by the type of owner, but first by his real needs of the enterprise in services of this kind and, of course, by the business qualities of the managers of this enterprise. Today, the market clearly sees the demand for the services of consultants from those enterprises that are headed by strong managers who understand the value of professional consulting assistance. The consultant is valuable not only because he performs a one-time project, but because he helps the company to establish effective independent everyday work. In this regard, enterprises primarily need a comprehensive restructuring, the main focus of which is on creating a strategy and reforming the business model, setting up regular management procedures, setting up a financial management and management accounting system, and setting up the company's marketing activities. From the study of this work, it became clear why consulting companies are needed and what they can give their clients, how they help companies using their services develop.
As in other organizations, consulting companies have their own, as yet unresolved problems and tasks, such as:
1. Formation of understanding among entrepreneurs of the place and role of professional consultants in the development of a successful business.
2. Formation of professional standards, ethical norms and rules of conduct in the consulting services market.
3. Increasing the professional level of consultants.
4. Protection of professional and other interests of consultants.
5. Participation in the development and implementation of complex investment projects and specific regional programs.
6. Cooperation with Russian and foreign consulting firms and trade unions.
7. Institutionalization of the consultant profession.
Solving the problems of consultants is the main task. Due to undeveloped demand in the consulting business, there is no quality competition, so the rivalry between companies is now in line with attracting new clients for consulting in general, and not their transition to a more professional consultant.
Teamwork and interpersonal skills required by staff (giving and receiving feedback, conflict resolution, understanding the values of difference, collegiality);
Skills to actively fight for quality, including the ability to identify problems and implement improvements.
Of course, the program is not a panacea for all organizational troubles and problems. However, the authors of the program remain confident that this kind of strengthening of organizational structures will help the enterprise to withstand the storms that rage in the modern market and involve employees in the problems of the enterprise, increase labor productivity and living standards.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Aleshnikova V.I. Using the services of professional consultants: a 17-module program for managers "Managing Organizational Development". - M., 2011.
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3. Veltman M., Marshev V.I., Posadsky A.P. Consulting in Russia: an introduction to professional methods of work. M.: 2012.
4. Goncharuk V.A. Marketing consulting. - M., 2013.
5. Elmamev O.K. Management consulting: issues of theory and practice. - Izhevsk, 2015.
7. Korobtsev V.V. Problems of professionalism of management consultants // Management consulting of innovations. Sat. Proceedings, no. 4, 2010.
8. Luzin A.E., Ozira V.Yu. Management consulting firms of capitalist countries M.: Economics, 2015.
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Clinical approach or the concept of deep counseling (A. I. Prigozhy)
The clinical approach or the concept of deep counseling (Prigozhin, 2003) is based on a systematic approach, but has significant additions. The task of the clinical approach: when working with facts, not to take them literally, but to see a new causality behind them. In the early 30s. E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, J. Dixon, in their studies of the behavior of factory workers, encountered a paradox: when the illumination deteriorated, output increased. A closer examination of this fact revealed that the workers, feeling the attention of scientists on themselves, tried, so to speak, to comply, and perceived the deterioration in illumination itself as a kind of test and made additional efforts in their work. This case was simple but instructive. The fact was the connection between the increase in output and the deterioration in illumination, but the reason was the reaction of the workers to the experimental situation.
From the point of view of A. I. Prigogine, “thinking clinically means not so much providing a service as treating an organization.”
The main provisions of the concept of deep counseling:
“a) deep counseling reaches the levels of unconscious and unmanifested demand, creates a demand for those consulting services that are adequate to the diagnosed or otherwise assessed situation;
- b) in-depth consulting connects to the process and project management consulting so-called. counseling (counseling) and individual counseling (couching);
- c) in-depth consulting is proactive, since it takes an independent position in relation to information, estimates, orders coming from the client organization; it does not so much follow the client as it leads him;
- d) in-depth consulting involves a consultant of a wide range, owning a large set of methods, able to offer a client a variety of consulting products (this can be one consultant or an aggregate one - a group, a firm).
I conducted organizational diagnostics at a good, strong firm. During diagnostic interviews, he asked, among others, the usual question:
How do you see the future of the company? Is there a strategy? All respondents answered approximately the same thing: “The prospects are generally good, but the leadership has no strategy, although it’s a pity - our head is used to thinking today.” Finally it was the turn of the general. He presented me with a very thoughtful and impressive image of the future of the firm, broken down into two, five, and ten years. I convinced him to give a talk at a core team meeting. Two weeks later, we went to a seminar where the employees in their own way deepened, concretized, corrected the presented strategy. Under it, they began to develop new functions, and then the structure, revised the motivation. I worked a lot with the manager individually: I helped him solve problems in relations with a number of subordinates, talked about the latest developments in the methodology of strategic management, motivation, etc. I attracted a lawyer, marketer, and psychologist to work with him. Worked for over two years.
It all started with the fact that I discovered that the armchair, reclusive leadership style is an obstacle to the development of the company, I suggested combining the interests and capabilities of employees to enter a new stage in the life of the organization. Note that this was my opinion, not the opinion of the client. The latter even objected at first.
Of course, deep counseling as understood in this way is not always possible. Often the head of the company requires one thing and does not accept anything else. However, for this, there are ways to problematize the client in order to reduce the number of such failures. Unless, of course, the consultant himself is ready for this.
- A. I. Prigozhin shares his experience: “... if a modern CEO tells me: “I have no difficulties with motivation, I have difficulties with investments,” then I accept this statement of his as an element of some broader problematic situation. At the level of workshops and sections, their bosses show me that they are seriously concerned about the attitude of workers to work, to its discipline and quality. And then for me the most important problem of this organization arises - lack of vertical communication skills, weak feedback from sections and shops to top management. And this problem certainly manifests itself by no means only in relation to motivation. As it turned out, information from the bottom up at the enterprise is generally very much distorted or blocked by long-established tensions, almost antagonism between different levels of management (op. cit. p. 162).
