Surnames and names famous intelligence officers and spies
Intelligence service– collecting information about an enemy or competitor to ensure one’s safety and gain advantages in the field armed forces, military action, politics or economics.
Intelligence can use both legal methods of collecting information (collecting and analyzing data from open sources, listening to radio channels from abroad, surveillance using reconnaissance satellites), and illegal operations that fall under the concept of “espionage” or “theft of information.”
According to the territorial principle intelligence can be external and internal.
Foreign intelligence is the collection of information about foreign countries and what is happening on their territory.
Domestic intelligence is the collection of information about criminal activities in one’s country.
By purpose intelligence happens:
Military intelligence
Engineering reconnaissance
Political intelligence
Economic intelligence
Industrial espionage
Business intelligence
Foreign counterintelligence
By means used intelligence happens:
Human intelligence
Species reconnaissance (includes aerial reconnaissance and space reconnaissance)
Electronic intelligence
Counterintelligence
Espionage– illegal intelligence activities of bodies (their agents) of foreign states, which, as a rule, involves the theft of officially classified information (state secrets) by the intelligence services of other states.
Spy- a person who secretly collects information about one of the conflicting parties for the benefit of the other party. A spy can be called either a full-time employee of a foreign intelligence service or a citizen of a state recruited by a foreign intelligence service and transmitting to it secret information known to him through work, service or personal connections.
The word “spy” has a negative connotation, which is why foreign intelligence agents of one’s own country who obtain information in other states are usually called scouts, rather than spies.
Typically, the word “spy” is used in cases where we are talking about transferring information to another state. Similar terms: informant, informant, agent, secret employee, source.
Military intelligence of the world
KGB, FSB – Russia
MI6 (MI6) – UK
CIA - USA
Mossad - Israel
MGB - China (Ministry of State Security)
Federal Reserve - Germany, German Federal Intelligence Service
Siguranza, Securitate – Romania
The entire 20th century phrase " Romanian intelligence services" was accompanied by the definitions "sinister", "most terrible". First, the fascist Siguranza, Then Securitate from the time of Ceausescu.
Spy films and films about intelligence officers
Spy films- a special genre of cinema, the foundations of which were laid by the great Alfred Hitchcock. Among the feature films devoted to the topic of espionage and intelligence, you can watch:
Films about intelligence officers
Feat of a scout (USSR, 1947)
A bet greater than life (Poland, 1965-1968, 18 episodes)
Shield and Sword (1968, USSR, 4 films)
One chance in a thousand (1968, USSR, Odessa Film Studio)
Seventeen moments of spring (1973, USSR, 12 episodes)
Special Forces Detachment (1978, USSR, Odessa Film Studio)
The path to Saturn
The end of Saturn
Fight after victory
Scouts. The Last Fight (Russia, 2008)
In August '44 (Russia, 2001)
Saboteur (Russia, 2003)
What's Better Than Bad Weather (1970)
The Great Boredom (Bulgaria, 1973)
Spy films
The 39 Steps (1935, directed by Alfred Hitchcock), spy movie classic
Three Days of the Condor" (1975, dir. Sydney Pollack)
Spies Like Us (1985, dir. John Landis)
Double (Canada, 1997)
Charlie's Angels (2000, USA)
Spy (2012, Russia, TriTe Studio)
Absolute spies (France, USA, Canada)
Spy films about James Bond - agent 007 (list of films)
Dr. No (1962)
From Russia with Love (1963)
Goldfinger (1964)
Ball Lightning (1965)
You Only Live Twice (1967)
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969)
Diamonds Are Forever (1971)
Live and Let Die (1973)
The Man with the Golden Gun (1974)
The Spy Who Loved Me (1977)
Moonraker (1979)
For Your Eyes Only (1981)
Octopussy (1983)
A View to a Kill (1985)
Sparks from the Eyes (1987)
License to Kill (1989)
GoldenEye (1995)
Tomorrow Never Dies (1997)
The World Is Not Enough (1999)
Die Another Day (2002)
Casino Royale (2006)
Quantum of Solace (2008)
007: Skyfall Coordinates (2012)
Surnames and names of famous intelligence officers and spies
Some served in intelligence for the sake of money, others fulfilled their duty to the Motherland and were patriots.
Abel, Rudolf, one of the most famous intelligence officers of the twentieth century
Azef, Yevno, was a secret agent of the police department from 1892.
Allahverdov, Mikhail, Soviet intelligence officer.
Anulov, Leonid, Soviet intelligence officer
Barkovsky, Vladimir, intelligence officer
Barr, Joel, Soviet intelligence agent.
Beeri, Isser, creator and first head of Israeli military intelligence Aman.
Berg, Joseph, American-Soviet radio technician, intelligence officer.
Berzin (Kyuzis), Jan (Peteris), founder of Soviet military intelligence, who led it for many years.
Bella Boyd, was a Southern Confederate spy in the Northern Movement during Civil War in the USA (1861 – 1865).
Blunt, Anthony, Soviet intelligence officer
Blake, George, spy
Bogovoy, Vasily, Soviet intelligence officer.
Borisov, Vasily, member of the underground organization "Young Guard".
Baer, Robert, former CRUCIA agent who worked for a long time in the Middle East.
Van Lew, Elizabeth, Spy
Vartanyan, Gevork, scout
Vasilevskaya, Wanda, Polish and Soviet writer, intelligence officer
Wennerström, Stig, the most famous Swedish spy of times cold war
Vicenovsky, Yuri, member of the underground Komsomol organization "Young Guard"
Voloshina, Vera, Soviet intelligence officer.
Wolf, Markus, head (1958-1987) of foreign intelligence of the GDR, Colonel General of State Security.
Voskresenskaya, Zoya, great intelligence officer, writer, author of books about Lenin for children
Harrison, Henry Thomas, Confederate spy
Gold, Harry, Soviet spy
Golubic, Mustafa, Serbian terrorist, Soviet intelligence officer.
Goldschlag, Stella, a collaborator of Jewish origin, collaborated with the Gestapo, helping to identify Jews hiding from being sent to concentration camps.
Gorchakov, Ovid, Soviet intelligence officer, Russian Soviet writer and screenwriter.
Green, Graham, Yevno Azef - were one of the most successful double agents in the history of espionage. He worked for two organizations hostile to each other and cleverly deceived both.
Gudz, Boris, senior intelligence officer
Gurevich, Anatoly, Russian intelligence officer
De Eon de Beaumont, Charles Genevieve Louis Auguste André Timothée, spy at the English court.
Allen Dulles, first director of the CIA
Dunlap, Jack, Spy
Deitch, John, scout
Doihara, Kenji, Japanese general, intelligence officer.
Davidson, Philip, American military intelligence officer, historian of the US war in Vietnam.
Zagoruiko, Vladimir, intelligence officer, member of the underground organization "Young Guard".
Zarubina, Zoya, scout
Silber, Jules, spy
Sorge, Richard, Soviet intelligence officer
Ingerman, Yakov, intelligence officer during the Great Patriotic War.
Ion, Otto, counterintelligence officer
Ioseliani, Avtandil, Lieutenant General
Cavalier de Eon. Charles-Genevieve-Louis-André-Timothée de Eon de Beaumont became a secret agent in 1762. He is best known as the woman he disguised himself as while carrying out various secret assignments for King Louis XV.
Casanova, Giacomo, philosopher, diplomat, writer, favorite of women, secret agent.
Kalugin, Oleg, former general The KGB of the USSR, which handed over the Soviet intelligence network to the United States.
Canaris, Wilhelm, Nazi general, head of the Abwehr (1935-1944), executed for participation in the anti-Hitler conspiracy.
Carre, Matilda, went down in history not only as a famous intelligence officer, but also as an insidious traitor.
Kirpichenko, Vadim, head of a group of consultants under the director of the SVR, lieutenant general
Kirchenstein, Rudolf, Soviet intelligence officer.
Kleshchinsky, Konstantin, agent-informant of Soviet military intelligence.
Klingberg, Abraham-Marcus, was the number one spy in Israeli history
Kobaladze, Yuri, journalist, spy, intelligence officer
Kolbe, Friedrich, spy
Kolesnikov, Yuri, Soviet intelligence officer, writer
Kollek, Teddy, mayor of Jerusalem 1965-1993, intelligence officer
Crabb, Lionel, spy
Cromwell, Oliver, political and military leader, leader of the English bourgeois revolution.
Kuznetsov, Nikolai, Soviet intelligence officer, partisan.
Kulak, Alexey, American intelligence officer
Lang, Stefan, worked in the INO OGPU.
Lebedev, Sergei, Director of the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation
Levinson Shimon, Soviet intelligence agent.
Lekarev Stanislav, retired colonel, veteran of foreign counterintelligence, candidate historical sciences, Ph.D.
Lodi, Karl, scout
Lawrence, Thomas Edward, English intelligence officer
Lutze, spy couple
Lyagin, Victor, scout
MacLane Donald, one of the most famous agents of Soviet foreign intelligence.
Manevich, Lev, scout
Mannerheim, Carl Gustav, Finnish marshal
Mayakin, Alexey, regimental reconnaissance platoon commander, Hero Soviet Union
Mendez, Tony, scout
Mercader, Ramon, NKVD agent, murderer of Leonid Trotsky
Young Conon, spy
Young Konon, the legendary Soviet illegal intelligence officer
Morozova Anna, intelligence officer, leader of an underground organization.
Morris Violetta, this French athlete used the invitation to participate in the summer Olympic Games 1936, held in Berlin to give Nazi Germany a list of strategic sites in Paris.
Mikhail Moskvin, one of the leaders of the Soviet intelligence services
Muravyov Nikolay, intelligence officer, Hero of the Soviet Union
Nalivaiko Boris, retired colonel
Naujoks Alfred, secret agent of the secret services of Nazi Germany
Father Joseph, Capuchin monk, Father Joseph, nicknamed the gray eminence, right hand of Cardinal Richelieu in complex political intrigues.
Pasichnichenko Alexander, retired officer of the Intelligence Directorate Headquarters.
Patkul Johann, spy
Polyakov Dmitry, spy
Popov Dashko, intelligence officer
Pope Edmond, spy
Rado Sandor, Soviet intelligence officer (pseudonyms - Albert, Dora).
Wright Peter, an employee of the British special services, a scientific and technical worker and a talented scientist, author of books.
Redl Alfred Victor, military man
Reilly Sidney George, British intelligence officer who operated in Russia and the Middle East in 1910-1920.
Ripperd, Baron van, spy
Rosenberg Julius and Ethel, spies
Rosenblum, Sigmund, spy
Svyatogorov Alexander Panteleimonovich, Soviet intelligence officer. He was a consultant for the films "The Exploit of a Scout" and "The Path to Saturn"
Semenov (Twain) Semyon, talented intelligence officer
Smirnov Konstantin, Soviet diplomat, intelligence officer
Sosnowski Jerzy, spy
Spiru Vasily, Soviet intelligence officer.
Stashinsky Bogdan, spy
Stechyshyn Vasily, former intelligence officer and Commandant of Vienna
Strutinsky Nikolai, Soviet partisan and intelligence officer, colonel of the KGB of the USSR.
Sudoplatov Pavel, intelligence officer
Tigde, Hans, traitor
Trepper (Gilbert), Leopold (Jean), the richest spy of all times.
Tretyakevich Victor, intelligence officer, partisan
Treholt Arne, Cold War Soviet agent
Troyan Nadezhda, intelligence officer and nurse of the partisan detachment "Storm", Hero of the Soviet Union.
Felbing Leiba, security officer, head of the secret operational unit of the Arkhangelsk Cheka (1920), investigator of the Supreme Tribunal of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
Figner, Alexander, famous partisan.
Philby Kim, Member of the Cambridge Five and one of the best spies of the USSR.
Filippov Alexey, Soviet intelligence officer.
Fink Michael, one of the main scouts of the Wild West.
Fitin Pavel, head of Soviet foreign intelligence, general
Fleming Ian, writer, creator of James Bond.
Feutinger Edgar, spy
Franklin Benjamin, American scientist and politician, one of the authors of the US Declaration of Independence.
Fuchs Klaus, traitor. He received the nickname "English atomic agent".
Hanssen Robert, FBI employee convicted of spying for the USSR and Russia
Hari Mata, spy dancer
Harris Katie, Soviet intelligence officer.
Hampel Paul, a "Russian spy" exposed and deported by Canadian authorities.
Tsanava Lavrentiy, Soviet counterintelligence officer
Zimmerman Arthur, Foreign Minister
Chapman Eddie, scout
Shebarshin Leonid, Lieutenant General, President of JSC Russian National Economic Security Service
Walter Schellenberg, head of German intelligence
Elisabeth Schragmüller, a remarkable case in the history of espionage
Alexey Shcherbakov, First Deputy Director of the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation (SVR).
Edmudson Sarah Emma, Spy
Eitingon Naum (Nathan), legendary scout
Yakushev, Alexander, Russian intelligence spy
Website materials used:
From this list you can select a name and order us its energy-information diagnostics.
On our website we offer a huge selection of names...
Our new book "The Energy of Surnames"
In our book "The Energy of the Name" you can read:
Selecting a name by automatic program
Selection of a name based on astrology, embodiment tasks, numerology, zodiac sign, types of people, psychology, energy
Choosing a name using astrology (examples of the weakness of this method of choosing a name)
Selection of a name according to the tasks of incarnation (life purpose, purpose)
Selecting a name using numerology (examples of the weakness of this name selection technique)
Choosing a name based on your zodiac sign
Choosing a name based on the type of person
Choosing a name in psychology
Choosing a name based on energy
What you need to know when choosing a name
What to do to choose the perfect name
If you like the name
Why you don’t like the name and what to do if you don’t like the name (three ways)
Two options for choosing a new successful name
Corrective name for a child
Corrective name for an adult
Adaptation to a new name
Our book "The Energy of the Name"
Oleg and Valentina Svetovid
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Attention!
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Note! We do not engage in healing or magic, we do not make or sell talismans and amulets. We do not engage in magical and healing practices at all, we have not offered and do not offer such services.
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Sometimes people write to us that they saw information on some websites that we allegedly deceived someone - they took money for healing sessions or making amulets. We officially declare that this is slander and not true. In our entire life, we have never deceived anyone. On the pages of our website, in the club materials, we always write that you need to be an honest, decent person. For us, an honest name is not an empty phrase.
People who write slander about us are guided by the basest motives - envy, greed, they have black souls. The times have come when slander pays well. Now many people are ready to sell their homeland for three kopecks, and it is even easier to slander decent people. People who write slander do not understand that they are seriously worsening their karma, worsening their fate and the fate of their loved ones. It is pointless to talk with such people about conscience and faith in God. They do not believe in God, because a believer will never make a deal with his conscience, will never engage in deception, slander, or fraud.
There are a lot of scammers, pseudo-magicians, charlatans, envious people, people without conscience and honor who are hungry for money. The police and other regulatory authorities have not yet been able to cope with the growing influx of "Deception for profit" madness.
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In fact, they have different legal status.
International humanitarian law is a set of international legal norms and principles governing the protection of victims of war, as well as limiting the methods and means of warfare. It is also called the law of war or the law of armed conflict. It is codified in the Hague Conventions, Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims of 1949 and Additional Protocols thereto of 1977, resolutions of the UN General Assembly and other documents.
The difference between a spy and an intelligence officer for lawyers is not only in shades of meaning. The main thing is to treat them as participants in a military conflict.
Unlike a spy, an intelligence officer, that is, a person from the armed forces of a party to the conflict who, on behalf of that party, collects or attempts to collect information in territory controlled by the opposing party, is not considered to be engaged in espionage if, in so doing, , it wears the uniform of its armed forces. Thus, in the event of capture, an intelligence officer has the right to prisoner of war status, but a spy does not. The spy may be subject to criminal prosecution.
In this sense, the Soviet illegal intelligence officer, Standartenführer SS Max Otto von Stirlitz was a spy. Because from the point of view international law Only front-line intelligence officers wearing the uniform of their armed forces can be considered intelligence officers. All intelligence agents are, by definition, spies.
IN manual on international humanitarian law for the Armed Forces Russian Federation spies and intelligence officers are also divided.
In comments and in conversations, this comparison is often used as an argument. Linguistically, it, of course, has a right to exist - we all understand that we are talking about one and the same thing. But legally, the difference between a spy and an intelligence officer is very significant.
Volunteer - this person who voluntarily enters the active army of one of the warring parties, he loses the status of a person of a neutral state; the actions of a volunteer are lawful if he joins an army waging a war in defense of his country from foreign enslavement.
Mercenary - is a person who 1) is specifically recruited locally or abroad in order to fight in an armed conflict; 2) actually takes direct part in hostilities; 3) guided primarily by the desire to obtain personal gain, and who was actually promised by a party or on behalf of a party to the conflict, material remuneration that significantly exceeds the remuneration promised or paid to combatants of the same rank and with the same functions from among the personnel of the armed forces of that sides; 4) is neither a citizen of a party to the conflict nor a person permanently residing in the territory controlled by a party to the conflict; 5) is not a member of the armed forces of a party to the conflict; 6) was not sent by a state that is not a party to the conflict to perform official duties as a member of its armed forces; 7) recruited to participate in pre-planned acts of violence aimed at overthrowing the government of a state, undermining its constitutional order or violating its territorial integrity and inviolability. A mercenary does not have the right to the status of a combatant and a prisoner of war; he is subject to criminal liability according to the laws of the state that captured him.
Military advisors and instructors – these are civilians or military personnel who are under the political leadership or military command of a belligerent state for the purpose of providing political advice to the leadership or training personnel of the armed forces of a foreign state in handling supplied equipment and weapons. Their legal status is not determined by the MP; it is determined in bilateral international treaties. Military advisers and instructors are not part of the armed forces of the warring states and, in their legal status, are close to non-combatants.
Combatant non-combatants. In Afghanistan, on the one hand, the forces of the state, combatants, are fighting, on the other - the forces of the unrecognized government of Afghanistan, the fighting non-combatants, the Taliban. According to Additional Protocol I of the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Victims of War of 1949, Article 43: “In the event of a conflict, the armed forces of the unrecognized government are considered as combatants”, Article 44: “if they are captured, they fall under the regime of combatants”
International regime for prisoners of war, wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of the Armed Forces at sea during an interstate conflict. The regime of this category of persons is regulated mainly by Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 1949. And Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Persons at Sea, 1949
The wounded and sick are considered to be civilians and military personnel located in an area of armed conflict who, due to injury, illness, other physical disorder or disability, require medical attention or care and who refrain from any hostile action. This category also includes women in labor, newborns, infirm, and pregnant women. Civilians and military personnel who are exposed to danger at sea or in other waters as a result of an accident to the ship or aircraft carrying them and who refrain from any hostile action are considered shipwrecked.
Regardless of which belligerent side they belong to, these individuals enjoy patronage and protection and have the right to humane treatment; they are provided with medical assistance to the maximum extent possible and in the shortest possible time. Once in the power of the enemy, the wounded, sick and shipwrecked are considered prisoners of war, and the rules of the MP regarding prisoners of war apply to them.
At all times, and especially after a battle, the parties must take all possible measures to search for and collect the wounded and sick and protect them from robbery and ill-treatment. Robbery of the dead (looting) is not allowed. When circumstances permit, truces or ceasefires should be negotiated to collect and exchange wounded men remaining on the battlefield.
The parties to the conflict must register all data that helps to establish the identity of the wounded, sick, shipwrecked and dead of the enemy side who are in their power. These details shall be brought to the attention of the National Prisoner of War Information Bureau for transmission to the Power to which the persons are attached, through a Central Prisoner of War Agency to be established in a neutral country.
It is prohibited to kill or exterminate the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, to deliberately leave them without medical assistance or care, to deliberately create conditions for their infection, to subject these persons, even with their consent, to physical mutilation, medical or scientific experiments, or the removal of tissue or organs for transplantation. , except when this is justified by the state of health of the person and complies with generally accepted medical standards. These persons have the right to refuse any surgical operation. The party forced to leave the wounded or sick to the enemy is obliged to leave with them, as far as military conditions allow, part of its medical personnel and equipment to assist in their care.
During the Austro-Italian-French War (1859), Swiss citizen Henri Dunant organized assistance for the wounded after the Battle of Solferino. His book "Memories of Solferino" awakened public consciousness. In 1863, the International Committee for Relief of the Wounded was created, today it is International Committee Red Cross . ICRC– non-governmental (private) neutral Swiss organization, founder of the Red Cross movement; one of the tasks of his activities– full promotion of compliance with the Geneva Conventions. During armed conflicts, it provides protection and assistance to victims, both military and civilian. The ICRC's mandate to operate during armed conflicts is based on the 4 Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their 1977 Additional Protocols I and II, as well as on the Statute
The ICRC plays a major role in the codification of international humanitarian law, with its active participation the 4 Geneva Conventions of 1949 (“Treatment of Prisoners of War”, “Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War”) on the Protection of Victims of War and Additional Protocols I and II were developed 1977 to them. There is a representative office of the ICRC in Russia - the Moscow delegation of the ICRC.
78. Legal regime of military occupation.
Military occupation is the temporary occupation during a war by the armed forces of one state of the territory of another state and the assumption of control of these territories.
According to international law, the occupied territory legally continues to remain the territory of the state to which it belonged before the occupation. During the period of temporary, actual transfer of power from the hands of the legitimate government to the military authorities that have occupied the territory, these authorities are obliged to ensure public order and the life of the population, respecting the laws existing in this country. The 1949 Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War establishes that persons in occupied territory have the right to respect for their person, honor, family rights, and religious beliefs.
The occupying state is not allowed to abolish the laws in force in the occupied territory. It has the right only to suspend the operation of those local laws that do not meet the interests of the security of its army or the occupying power, and can also issue temporary administrative acts if this is necessary to maintain public order. Criminal laws issued by the occupying power shall enter into force only after they have been published and communicated to the population in their language.
The destruction and destruction of not only private, but also public and state property is prohibited; The destruction of movable or immovable property representing the individual or collective property of private individuals or the state, communities or public or cooperative organizations, which is not absolutely necessary for military operations, is recognized as unlawful.
The regime of post-war occupation should be distinguished from the regime of military occupation as a measure of state responsibility for aggression(for example, the occupation regime in Germany and Japan, starting from the moment of their unconditional surrender in 1945 until the abolition of such a regime, which was based on special international legal acts).
79. Legal regime of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of the armed forces.
See question 78.
80. Means and methods of warfare.
Means of warfare- weapons, shells, substances used by the armed forces of the warring parties to harm and defeat the enemy. Methods of warfare- this is the order of using the means of warfare.
Means and methods of warfare are divided into prohibited (or partially prohibited) and not prohibited by international law. According to Art. 35 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, the right of the parties to a conflict to choose means and methods of warfare is not unlimited. It is prohibited to use weapons, projectiles, substances and methods of warfare that are capable of causing unnecessary damage or suffering or making the death of combatants inevitable, as well as leading to mass destruction and wanton destruction of material assets (Article 22 of the Annex to the 1907 Hague Convention on the Laws and customs of land war).
International law prohibits the following means and methods of warfare (land, sea, air):
· poisons or poisonous weapons, asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, similar liquids, substances and processes, as well as bacteriological weapons;
means of influencing natural environment for hostile purposes;
· any weapon if its effect is to cause damage by fragments that are not detectable in human body using x-rays (glass, plastic, etc.); mines, booby traps and other devices in the form of children's toys and objects medical care; any incendiary weapons against civilians, populated areas and non-military objects;
· other types of conventional weapons that may be considered to cause excessive injury or have an indiscriminate effect;
· carrying out genocide in occupied territory; treacherous killing or wounding of an enemy who has laid down his arms or is unarmed; an announcement to the defenders that if they resist, there will be no mercy;
· senseless destruction of cities and towns and destruction of enemy property, unless this is caused by military necessity;
However, international law does not prohibit stratagems intended to mislead the enemy or induce him to act rashly. Examples of such tricks are: the use of camouflage, decoys, false operations and disinformation (Article 37 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949).
In connection with the development of scientific and technological progress and the increase in its level in the military-industrial complex, means and methods of air warfare occupy a special place in the international law of armed conflicts. The provisions of Additional Protocol I are aimed at protecting civilians from air attacks. Air attacks can only be directed against military targets. An attack or threat of attack the primary purpose of which is to terrorize the civilian population is prohibited.
81. The end of the war and its legal consequences.
The most common forms of cessation of hostilities are truce and surrender. Truce- temporary cessation of hostilities, carried out on the basis of mutual agreement between the parties to the armed conflict. There are two types of truce: local and general. A local truce aims to suspend hostilities between individual units and subunits in a limited area of military operations. As a rule, it is aimed at solving specific problems (selecting the wounded, burying the dead, evacuating civilians from a besieged area, sending envoys, etc.).
A general truce differs significantly from a local one. Firstly, in the event of a general truce, military operations are suspended throughout the entire theater of military operations. Secondly, a general truce under certain circumstances (for example, if the parties to the conflict have not formally declared the existence of a state of war between them) can not only suspend hostilities, but also lead to their cessation.
A specific form of suspension of hostilities is the implementation by the states participating in the conflict of a decision of the UN Security Council (based on Article 40 of the UN Charter “On temporary measures”, which may include, in particular, a ceasefire, the withdrawal of troops to previously occupied positions, the liberation of a certain territory and etc.).
Surrender- this is the cessation of resistance by the armed forces or part of them. As a rule, upon surrender, all weapons, military equipment, warships and aircraft go to the enemy. The surrendering party is subject to military captivity. Capitulation differs from a truce in that the capitulating party is deprived of even formal equality with the winner. According to the usual rule of international law, violation of the terms of surrender constitutes an international offense if committed at the direction of the belligerent government, or a war crime if committed without such direction. Such a violation may entail either adequate military action or punishment of the perpetrators as war criminals.
The main international legal means of ending the state of war between the warring parties is the conclusion of a peace treaty. Such agreements cover a wide range of issues relating to the settlement of political, economic, territorial and other problems in connection with the cessation of war and the restoration of peace between the warring parties.
The legal consequences of the end of the war occur both for the belligerents and for neutral and other non-belligerent states. For warring states, the laws and customs of war cease to apply and normal peaceful relations, including diplomatic ones, are established. For neutral states, the state of neutrality in war ends, and for all non-belligerent states, the need to comply with the regime of war zones is generally eliminated, interned citizens are returned, etc.
82. Environmental law. General characteristics.
MEP is a set of principles and norms governing relations between the subjects of small business regarding environmental protection and rational use of natural resources for the benefit of current and future generations of people.
The formation of the MEP industry can be fully associated with the first UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. At this conference it was created United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which is designed to coordinate international activities in the field of environmental protection, monitor the state of the environment, develop and codify MEAs, promote the development of programs for the rational use of natural resources with special regard to the interests of developing countries, and provide them with technical assistance in this area.
In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development took place in Rio de Janeiro. It adopted the Rio Declaration, which develops the principles of the Stockholm Declaration, as well as Principles on forest protection And Agenda 21, which proposes a program of action for all governments in different areas of environmental protection for the period 1993-2000. and further into the 21st century.
Main source law in the field of MEAs is international treaty. This is primarily because environmental provisions may include, rely on or refer to certain technical and physical parameters and characteristics. Such provisions require a clear and concise statement, which is only possible if an international treaty is concluded. At the same time international legal custom played and continues to play a certain role in the development of MPOS and the formation of its principles - the fundamental norms of this industry of MP. Soft norms. Internal law.
The fundamental principle of IEG is the principle that States shall not, through activities within their jurisdiction or control, cause damage to the environment of other States or areas beyond national jurisdiction. This principle was formulated at the Stockholm Conference (Principle 21), however, it has its roots in a principle of Roman law. This principle is a customary legal principle.
Another fundamental principle of IEG is the principle of state sovereignty over its national natural resources. It, in essence, is an expression of the principle of state sovereignty, which is part of the general MP. Developing states seeking independence from rich states in developing their own resources insisted on special emphasis on this principle in the field of the environment.
The MEP develops the principle that states have an obligation to notify other states of emergencies or natural disasters that may have harmful effects on the environment. This principle is included in such treaties as the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution of 1979, the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident of 1986, etc.
Stands out the principle that states must consult with other interested states regarding activities they are planning that may have potentially adverse transboundary consequences. This principle, for example, is contained in the 1994 Nuclear Safety Convention.
Currently taking shape precautionary principle, Whereby States should exercise caution in undertaking any activity or project that could potentially cause harm to the environment, despite the lack of full scientific evidence that such damage will actually occur. This principle is contained in the Preamble of the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity and in the 1991 Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import of Hazardous Wastes into Africa and on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes within Africa.
Brussels 1913 – 1st conference. 60-70s – NTR:
Stage 1– before the UN Stockholm Conference - June 1972 Stage 2– from 1972 to the conference in Rio de Janeiro – June 1992 Stage 3– after 1992 until September 2002 (Johansburg).
3 groups of conventions:
1) convention general– regulate relations in various areas (Convention on the Law of the Sea).
2) framework conventions – general principles environmental protection (Stockholm, Rio de Janeiro).
3) specific norms of behavior for states (Kyoto Protocol - entered into force in 2005).
Regional conventions – protection of the Baltic Sea.
83. Protection of the planetary environment and outer space.
Space – a vast territory extending from the outer boundary of the airspace (~ 100-110 km from the Earth’s surface) to the limits of the lunar orbit – the so-called. near space, and beyond, i.e. further 384 thousand km – deep space.
Space law - the branch of international business, a set of legal principles and norms that determine the legal regime of outer space, and determines the procedure for the activities of states in this area.
1958 – 13th session of the UN General Assembly, a decision was made to develop norms of space law.
1963 – Declaration of Principles on the Activities of States in Outer Space (advisory).
The main sources of international space law are international treaties. Among them -
1. The Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967 (Outer Outer Treaty), is open for signature in Washington and Moscow.
2. Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched into outer space, 1968
3.Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972 (Liability Convention),
4.Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975,
5. Agreement concerning the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 (Moon Agreement),
6.regional and bilateral agreements between states, between states and international organizations.
An important role in regulating the legal regime of outer space also plays Treaty Banning Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water of 1963, Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems of 1972, etc.
main sources : conventional, customary, soft law (Unispace), national norms.
Basic principles. The legal regime applies to: space itself and celestial bodies, plus space objects made by man, plus the activities of states in space. There is a UN Space Committee. UNISPACE - three conferences, the last one in 1999. Applicability in this area of all the basic principles of MP.
According to the 1967 Treaty, “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies , are not subject to national assignment neither by declaring sovereignty over them, nor by use or occupation, nor by any other means.”
Outer space and celestial bodies are open for exploration and use by all states without any discrimination on the basis of equality with free access to all areas of celestial bodies.
Space stations may be used jointly, but they belong to the countries where they are registered.
Standards have been developed for the rescue of people in space.
Activities in space must comply with the MP, including the UN Charter. States are obliged to take into account the interests of other states and avoid harmful pollution of outer space and celestial bodies.
It is prohibited to launch nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction into space and place them there., carry out their tests (although there is the possibility of missiles flying through space, and the deployment of conventional weapons). The moon and celestial bodies should be used for peaceful purposes.
The Moon and other celestial bodies are declared the common heritage of humanity.The prohibition of national appropriation of celestial bodies applies to their surface, subsoil and natural resources and applies to States, SIDS, legal entities and individuals. The rules established in relation to the Moon (demilitarized regime) also apply to the orbits of flight trajectories to and around the Moon. The 1979 Moon Agreement sets out in detail how to implement scientific research on the Moon, but the leading space countries are not participating in it.
One of the problems of international space law is the problem of high-altitude delimitation of air and outer space. There is no definite boundary between them. Neither the MP nor the national legislation of states contain rules establishing the border between these spaces. This issue has remained on the agenda of the UN Outer Space Committee for a long time.
The practice of states confirms the opinion existing in the doctrine that a customary rule is emerging, according to which the sovereignty of a state does not extend to the space located above the orbit of the smallest perigee of an artificial Earth satellite (this altitude is approximately 110-140 km above sea level). A number of states (including Russia) propose to adopt a treaty norm defining that outer space begins from a height 100-110 km above ocean level. At the same time, space objects, when launching them into orbit and returning to Earth, retain the right of “harmless (peaceful) flight” over the territories of foreign states and at lower altitudes. Such a norm would make it possible to determine the spatial sphere to which the legal regime of outer space applies.
Activities of non-governmental legal entities in space can only be carried out with the permission and under the supervision of the relevant state. SIDS are allowed to operate in space.
If someone else's satellite falls into the territory of another state, you must pay for the damage caused.
There is a problem of space contamination with spent spacecraft.
Latin countries are unhappy with the broadcasting of American satellites into their territory.
Of particular importance is the orbital region of the so-called geostationary satellites. This is a part of outer space located at a distance of approximately 35,800 km and located in the plane of the earth's equator (such a spatial ring is also called a geostationary orbit or geostationary space).
Geostationary satellites have a number of features. Their orbital period around the Earth is equal to an Earth day, which ensures a constant position of the satellite above a certain point on the Earth's equator. At the same time, a third of the Earth's surface area is visible to the satellite. This creates optimal conditions for some applied types of space activities (for example, for the use of communication satellites, television broadcasting, meteorological observation, etc.). As a result, more than half of all existing satellites are located in geostationary orbit. However, only a limited number of satellites can be placed in this space, since when they are close to each other, on-board radio equipment can create mutual interference. All this was the reason for the discussion regarding the legal regime of this part of space. space. This issue is currently being discussed in the UN Committee on Outer Space. In 1976, seven equatorial countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Congo, Uganda, Zaire, Kenya) put forward claims to the geostationary orbit; in 1978 this was reviewed by the UN and rejected.
At the same time, certain coordinating work on the economical use of geostationary space is carried out by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The 1992 ITU Constitution defines radio frequencies and the geostationary satellite orbit as finite natural resources that must be used rationally, efficiently and economically to ensure equitable access to the orbit and frequencies different countries, taking into account the peculiarities of the geographical location of some states and the special needs of developing countries. In order to rationally use the geostationary orbit resource and avoid mutual radio interference, the ITU coordinates, allocates and registers radio frequencies and orbital positions for geostationary satellites declared by various states. At the same time, in relation to the allocation of orbital positions, one cannot speak of their national assignment.
In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted the Principles Relating to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources (NPS) in Outer Space. The use of nuclear power plants in space should be limited only to those space flights, which cannot be carried out without nuclear power engineering. In order to prevent falling to Earth spacecraft, having nuclear power propulsion, it has been established that such satellites can be used during interplanetary flights in sufficiently high orbits, and in low Earth orbits - provided that spent objects are stored in sufficiently high orbits.
Planetary environment
I have always been surprised by the language that the word “spy” has a negative connotation, while “scout” has a positive connotation. But this is not fair! Both of them eavesdrop, spy, gain trust and abuse it, maliciously deceive, deceive.
As a rule, the word spy is used in cases where we are talking about the transfer of secret information to the enemy side. And when the same thing is done for one’s own side - for example, reporting to the authorities about the illegal activities of acquaintances, other terms are used: “informant”, “provocateur”, “informant”, “agent”, and the first two have a clearly negative connotation and the last two - generally neutral.
According to the norms of international humanitarian law, any person from the armed forces of a party to the conflict who falls into the power of the warring party while engaged in espionage is not entitled to the status of a prisoner of war (!!!), and may be treated as with a spy, that is, he may be subject to criminal prosecution - in accordance with current legislation. This appears to be the legal difference!
Unlike a spy, an intelligence officer, that is, a member of the armed forces of a party to the conflict who, on behalf of that party, collects or attempts to collect information in territory controlled by the opposing party, is not considered to be an espionage unless, in so doing, He wears uniform
their armed forces. Thus, in the event of capture, the intelligence officer has the right to prisoner of war status. Remember the joke about Stirlitz, behind whom a parachute was trailing and he was wearing shoulder straps and an order! The Germans could not shoot him according to their laws;))
The difference between informants and spies is outwardly little noticeable - like espionage and counter-espionage. At the same time, it often happens that the legitimacy of existing power structures is not always generally recognized or legally supported, especially in conditions of prolonged wars or revolutions, weakening state power, changing borders, uncertainty of the population about the future. For example in northern Ireland informants were very actively used by the British Scotland Yard. Such an informant was considered an “intelligence officer,” “informant,” or “spy,” depending on the political beliefs of the speaker.
According to the hairdryer, such people are called “informers” or “bitch” - these terms are invariably negative. In official papers, in addition to the terms “informant” and “agent”, “secret employee”, abbreviated “sexot” (the word highlighted Stalin's period) or simply "employee". Alternatively, such a “person” may simply be referred to as a “source.”
Along with ordinary espionage, there is the concept of industrial espionage, the object of which can be both domestic and foreign industrial commercial organizations. I wonder - who is the intelligence officer, who is the informer, and who is the spy?
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I continue to promote my friends:
Since our website www.site is dedicated not only to information security, which is in one way or another connected with intelligence and espionage, but also to intelligence itself. I would like to help the visitor understand the terminology associated with this topic. And so in this article I will try to answer the questions:
- What types of scouts are there?
- Who is a spy?
- Who is an intelligence agent?
- Who is an intelligence resident?
An intelligence officer or spy is usually called a person for whom intelligence is his main profession. An intelligence officer has a special intelligence education and is a full-time employee of one or more intelligence agencies.
The famous Soviet intelligence officer Richard Sorge (Ramsay) While carrying out his assignments, a professional intelligence officer may be in a foreign country under the guise of a journalist, diplomat, entrepreneur, etc.
What types of scouts are there?
Scouts are:
- Legal
- Illegal
"Legal" intelligence officer acts in other countries as a citizen of his country, working in one of its representative offices (for example, an embassy).
"Illegal" intelligence officer works under the guise of a citizen of the country in which he is located, or a foreigner from another, third country.
Who is an intelligence agent?
An intelligence agent is an intelligence assistant who is not a professional intelligence officer, but who carries out assignments for intelligence agencies.
In some cases, the importance of an agent in obtaining the necessary information is even higher than the role of a professional intelligence officer, since such people may have access to secret data that is not available to the intelligence officer.
Who is a spy?
Now let's figure out who a spy is? and who do we call spies?
One of the first books on intelligence gives the following formulation: “All our employees are intelligence officers, and all enemy employees are spies.”
The word “Spy” has always been considered a despicable word all over the world. It is believed that these are people who sold the interests and secrets of their country for money.
Red Chapel
But there is a deep difference between hero scouts and corrupt spies, although both seem to pursue a common goal: to learn the secrets of the enemy. But we can hardly call the members of the Red Chapel who helped intelligence spies who were caught and executed during World War II in Germany. They were brave and fierce anti-fascists, ready to give their lives just like those soldiers who fought the enemy at the front.
These people did not receive any monetary rewards for their work; their goal was one - to protect the people of Germany from fascism. There have been many similar cases in the history of intelligence.
Who is a resident?
Another term you may come across in the intelligence world: resident. This is an intelligence department employee in charge of a station, that is, a group of agents and intelligence officers subordinate to him.
And of course, you need to know who the counterintelligence agents are. There is counterintelligence in every country. This is an organization designed to fight and protect from enemy intelligence, to prevent it from collecting classified data. Counterintelligence officers carry out difficult operations to expose and apprehend enemy spies.
